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glibc/manual/math.texi
Joseph Myers 06caf53adf Implement C23 rootn. 
C23 adds various <math.h> function families originally defined in TS
18661-4.  Add the rootn functions, which compute the Yth root of X for
integer Y (with a domain error if Y is 0, even if X is a NaN).  The
integer exponent has type long long int in C23; it was intmax_t in TS
18661-4, and as with other interfaces changed after their initial
appearance in the TS, I don't think we need to support the original
version of the interface.

As with pown and compoundn, I strongly encourage searching for worst
cases for ulps error for these implementations (necessarily
non-exhaustively, given the size of the input space).  I also expect a
custom implementation for a given format could be much faster as well
as more accurate, although the implementation is simpler than those
for pown and compoundn.

This completes adding to glibc those TS 18661-4 functions (ignoring
DFP) that are included in C23.  See
https://gcc.gnu.org/bugzilla/show_bug.cgi?id=118592 regarding the C23
mathematical functions (not just the TS 18661-4 ones) missing built-in
functions in GCC, where such functions might usefully be added.

Tested for x86_64 and x86, and with build-many-glibcs.py.
2025-05-14 10:51:46 +00:00

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@c We need some definitions here.
@ifclear mult
@ifhtml
@set mult @U{00B7}
@set infty @U{221E}
@set pie @U{03C0}
@end ifhtml
@iftex
@set mult @cdot
@set infty @infty
@end iftex
@ifclear mult
@set mult *
@set infty oo
@set pie pi
@end ifclear
@macro mul
@value{mult}
@end macro
@macro infinity
@value{infty}
@end macro
@ifnottex
@macro pi
@value{pie}
@end macro
@end ifnottex
@end ifclear
@node Mathematics, Arithmetic, Syslog, Top
@c %MENU% Math functions, useful constants, random numbers
@chapter Mathematics
This chapter contains information about functions for performing
mathematical computations, such as trigonometric functions. Most of
these functions have prototypes declared in the header file
@file{math.h}. The complex-valued functions are defined in
@file{complex.h}.
@pindex math.h
@pindex complex.h
All mathematical functions which take a floating-point argument
have three variants, one each for @code{double}, @code{float}, and
@code{long double} arguments. The @code{double} versions are mostly
defined in @w{ISO C89}. The @code{float} and @code{long double}
versions are from the numeric extensions to C included in @w{ISO C99}.
Which of the three versions of a function should be used depends on the
situation. For most calculations, the @code{float} functions are the
fastest. On the other hand, the @code{long double} functions have the
highest precision. @code{double} is somewhere in between. It is
usually wise to pick the narrowest type that can accommodate your data.
Not all machines have a distinct @code{long double} type; it may be the
same as @code{double}.
@Theglibc{} also provides @code{_Float@var{N}} and
@code{_Float@var{N}x} types. These types are defined in @w{ISO/IEC TS
18661-3}, which extends @w{ISO C} and defines floating-point types that
are not machine-dependent. When such a type, such as @code{_Float128},
is supported by @theglibc{}, extra variants for most of the mathematical
functions provided for @code{double}, @code{float}, and @code{long
double} are also provided for the supported type. Throughout this
manual, the @code{_Float@var{N}} and @code{_Float@var{N}x} variants of
these functions are described along with the @code{double},
@code{float}, and @code{long double} variants and they come from
@w{ISO/IEC TS 18661-3}, unless explicitly stated otherwise.
Support for @code{_Float@var{N}} or @code{_Float@var{N}x} types is
provided for @code{_Float32}, @code{_Float64} and @code{_Float32x} on
all platforms.
It is also provided for @code{_Float128} and @code{_Float64x} on
powerpc64le (PowerPC 64-bits little-endian), x86_64, x86,
aarch64, alpha, loongarch, mips64, riscv, s390 and sparc.
@menu
* Mathematical Constants:: Precise numeric values for often-used
constants.
* Trig Functions:: Sine, cosine, tangent, and friends.
* Inverse Trig Functions:: Arcsine, arccosine, etc.
* Exponents and Logarithms:: Also pow and sqrt.
* Hyperbolic Functions:: sinh, cosh, tanh, etc.
* Special Functions:: Bessel, gamma, erf.
* Errors in Math Functions:: Remarks in Errors in Math Functions.
* Pseudo-Random Numbers:: Functions for generating pseudo-random
numbers.
* FP Function Optimizations:: Fast code or small code.
@end menu
@node Mathematical Constants
@section Predefined Mathematical Constants
@cindex constants
@cindex mathematical constants
The header @file{math.h} defines several useful mathematical constants.
All values are defined as preprocessor macros starting with @code{M_}.
The values provided are:
@vtable @code
@item M_E
The base of natural logarithms.
@item M_LOG2E
The logarithm to base @code{2} of @code{M_E}.
@item M_LOG10E
The logarithm to base @code{10} of @code{M_E}.
@item M_LN2
The natural logarithm of @code{2}.
@item M_LN10
The natural logarithm of @code{10}.
@item M_PI
Pi, the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter.
@item M_PI_2
Pi divided by two.
@item M_PI_4
Pi divided by four.
@item M_1_PI
The reciprocal of pi (1/pi)
@item M_2_PI
Two times the reciprocal of pi.
@item M_2_SQRTPI
Two times the reciprocal of the square root of pi.
@item M_SQRT2
The square root of two.
@item M_SQRT1_2
The reciprocal of the square root of two (also the square root of 1/2).
@end vtable
These constants come from the Unix98 standard and were also available in
4.4BSD; therefore they are only defined if
@code{_XOPEN_SOURCE=500}, or a more general feature select macro, is
defined. The default set of features includes these constants.
@xref{Feature Test Macros}.
All values are of type @code{double}. As an extension, @theglibc{}
also defines these constants with type @code{long double} and
@code{float}. The @code{long double} macros have a lowercase @samp{l}
while the @code{float} macros have a lowercase @samp{f} appended to
their names: @code{M_El}, @code{M_PIl}, and so forth. These are only
available if @code{_GNU_SOURCE} is defined.
Likewise, @theglibc{} also defines these constants with the types
@code{_Float@var{N}} and @code{_Float@var{N}x} for the machines that
have support for such types enabled (@pxref{Mathematics}) and if
@code{_GNU_SOURCE} is defined. When available, the macros names are
appended with @samp{f@var{N}} or @samp{f@var{N}x}, such as @samp{f128}
for the type @code{_Float128}.
@vindex PI
@emph{Note:} Some programs use a constant named @code{PI} which has the
same value as @code{M_PI}. This constant is not standard; it may have
appeared in some old AT&T headers, and is mentioned in Stroustrup's book
on C++. It infringes on the user's name space, so @theglibc{}
does not define it. Fixing programs written to expect it is simple:
replace @code{PI} with @code{M_PI} throughout, or put @samp{-DPI=M_PI}
on the compiler command line.
@node Trig Functions
@section Trigonometric Functions
@cindex trigonometric functions
These are the familiar @code{sin}, @code{cos}, and @code{tan} functions.
The arguments to all of these functions are in units of radians; recall
that pi radians equals 180 degrees.
@cindex pi (trigonometric constant)
The math library normally defines @code{M_PI} to a @code{double}
approximation of pi. If strict ISO and/or POSIX compliance
are requested this constant is not defined, but you can easily define it
yourself:
@smallexample
#define M_PI 3.14159265358979323846264338327
@end smallexample
@noindent
You can also compute the value of pi with the expression @code{acos
(-1.0)}.
@deftypefun double sin (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float sinf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} sinl (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN sinfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx sinfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{sinfN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{sinfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the sine of @var{x}, where @var{x} is given in
radians. The return value is in the range @code{-1} to @code{1}.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double cos (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float cosf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} cosl (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN cosfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx cosfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{cosfN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{cosfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the cosine of @var{x}, where @var{x} is given in
radians. The return value is in the range @code{-1} to @code{1}.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double tan (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float tanf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} tanl (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN tanfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx tanfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{tanfN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{tanfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the tangent of @var{x}, where @var{x} is given in
radians.
Mathematically, the tangent function has singularities at odd multiples
of pi/2. If the argument @var{x} is too close to one of these
singularities, @code{tan} will signal overflow.
@end deftypefun
In many applications where @code{sin} and @code{cos} are used, the sine
and cosine of the same angle are needed at the same time. It is more
efficient to compute them simultaneously, so the library provides a
function to do that.
@deftypefun void sincos (double @var{x}, double *@var{sinx}, double *@var{cosx})
@deftypefunx void sincosf (float @var{x}, float *@var{sinx}, float *@var{cosx})
@deftypefunx void sincosl (long double @var{x}, long double *@var{sinx}, long double *@var{cosx})
@deftypefunx _FloatN sincosfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x}, _Float@var{N} *@var{sinx}, _Float@var{N} *@var{cosx})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx sincosfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x}, _Float@var{N}x *@var{sinx}, _Float@var{N}x *@var{cosx})
@standards{GNU, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the sine of @var{x} in @code{*@var{sinx}} and the
cosine of @var{x} in @code{*@var{cosx}}, where @var{x} is given in
radians. Both values, @code{*@var{sinx}} and @code{*@var{cosx}}, are in
the range of @code{-1} to @code{1}.
All these functions, including the @code{_Float@var{N}} and
@code{_Float@var{N}x} variants, are GNU extensions. Portable programs
should be prepared to cope with their absence.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double sinpi (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float sinpif (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} sinpil (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN sinpifN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx sinpifNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{TS 18661-4:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the sine of pi multiplied by @var{x}. The
return value is in the range @code{-1} to @code{1}.
The @code{sinpi} functions are from TS 18661-4:2015.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double cospi (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float cospif (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} cospil (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN cospifN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx cospifNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{TS 18661-4:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the cosine of pi multiplied by @var{x}. The
return value is in the range @code{-1} to @code{1}.
The @code{cospi} functions are from TS 18661-4:2015.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double tanpi (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float tanpif (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} tanpil (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN tanpifN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx tanpifNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{TS 18661-4:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the tangent of pi multiplied by @var{x}.
The @code{tanpi} functions are from TS 18661-4:2015.
@end deftypefun
@cindex complex trigonometric functions
@w{ISO C99} defines variants of the trig functions which work on
complex numbers. @Theglibc{} provides these functions, but they
are only useful if your compiler supports the new complex types defined
by the standard.
@c XXX Change this when gcc is fixed. -zw
(As of this writing GCC supports complex numbers, but there are bugs in
the implementation.)
@deftypefun {complex double} csin (complex double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex float} csinf (complex float @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex long double} csinl (complex long double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatN} csinfN (complex _Float@var{N} @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatNx} csinfNx (complex _Float@var{N}x @var{z})
@standards{ISO, complex.h}
@standardsx{csinfN, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@standardsx{csinfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
@c There are calls to nan* that could trigger @mtslocale if they didn't get
@c empty strings.
These functions return the complex sine of @var{z}.
The mathematical definition of the complex sine is
@ifnottex
@math{sin (z) = 1/(2*i) * (exp (z*i) - exp (-z*i))}.
@end ifnottex
@tex
$$\sin(z) = {1\over 2i} (e^{zi} - e^{-zi})$$
@end tex
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun {complex double} ccos (complex double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex float} ccosf (complex float @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex long double} ccosl (complex long double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatN} ccosfN (complex _Float@var{N} @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatNx} ccosfNx (complex _Float@var{N}x @var{z})
@standards{ISO, complex.h}
@standardsx{ccosfN, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@standardsx{ccosfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the complex cosine of @var{z}.
The mathematical definition of the complex cosine is
@ifnottex
@math{cos (z) = 1/2 * (exp (z*i) + exp (-z*i))}
@end ifnottex
@tex
$$\cos(z) = {1\over 2} (e^{zi} + e^{-zi})$$
@end tex
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun {complex double} ctan (complex double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex float} ctanf (complex float @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex long double} ctanl (complex long double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatN} ctanfN (complex _Float@var{N} @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatNx} ctanfNx (complex _Float@var{N}x @var{z})
@standards{ISO, complex.h}
@standardsx{ctanfN, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@standardsx{ctanfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the complex tangent of @var{z}.
The mathematical definition of the complex tangent is
@ifnottex
@math{tan (z) = -i * (exp (z*i) - exp (-z*i)) / (exp (z*i) + exp (-z*i))}
@end ifnottex
@tex
$$\tan(z) = -i \cdot {e^{zi} - e^{-zi}\over e^{zi} + e^{-zi}}$$
@end tex
@noindent
The complex tangent has poles at @math{pi/2 + 2n}, where @math{n} is an
integer. @code{ctan} may signal overflow if @var{z} is too close to a
pole.
@end deftypefun
@node Inverse Trig Functions
@section Inverse Trigonometric Functions
@cindex inverse trigonometric functions
These are the usual arcsine, arccosine and arctangent functions,
which are the inverses of the sine, cosine and tangent functions
respectively.
@deftypefun double asin (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float asinf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} asinl (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN asinfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx asinfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{asinfN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{asinfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions compute the arcsine of @var{x}---that is, the value whose
sine is @var{x}. The value is in units of radians. Mathematically,
there are infinitely many such values; the one actually returned is the
one between @code{-pi/2} and @code{pi/2} (inclusive).
The arcsine function is defined mathematically only
over the domain @code{-1} to @code{1}. If @var{x} is outside the
domain, @code{asin} signals a domain error.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double acos (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float acosf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} acosl (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN acosfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx acosfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{acosfN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{acosfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions compute the arccosine of @var{x}---that is, the value
whose cosine is @var{x}. The value is in units of radians.
Mathematically, there are infinitely many such values; the one actually
returned is the one between @code{0} and @code{pi} (inclusive).
The arccosine function is defined mathematically only
over the domain @code{-1} to @code{1}. If @var{x} is outside the
domain, @code{acos} signals a domain error.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double atan (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float atanf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} atanl (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN atanfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx atanfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{atanfN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{atanfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions compute the arctangent of @var{x}---that is, the value
whose tangent is @var{x}. The value is in units of radians.
Mathematically, there are infinitely many such values; the one actually
returned is the one between @code{-pi/2} and @code{pi/2} (inclusive).
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double atan2 (double @var{y}, double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float atan2f (float @var{y}, float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} atan2l (long double @var{y}, long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN atan2fN (_Float@var{N} @var{y}, _Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx atan2fNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{y}, _Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{atan2fN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{atan2fNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
This function computes the arctangent of @var{y}/@var{x}, but the signs
of both arguments are used to determine the quadrant of the result, and
@var{x} is permitted to be zero. The return value is given in radians
and is in the range @code{-pi} to @code{pi}, inclusive.
If @var{x} and @var{y} are coordinates of a point in the plane,
@code{atan2} returns the signed angle between the line from the origin
to that point and the x-axis. Thus, @code{atan2} is useful for
converting Cartesian coordinates to polar coordinates. (To compute the
radial coordinate, use @code{hypot}; see @ref{Exponents and
Logarithms}.)
@c This is experimentally true. Should it be so? -zw
If both @var{x} and @var{y} are zero, @code{atan2} returns zero.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double asinpi (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float asinpif (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} asinpil (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN asinpifN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx asinpifNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{TS 18661-4:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions compute the arcsine of @var{x}, divided by pi. The
result is in the interval between @code{-0.5} and @code{0.5} (inclusive).
The arcsine function is defined mathematically only over the domain
@code{-1} to @code{1}. If @var{x} is outside the domain,
@code{asinpi} signals a domain error.
The @code{asinpi} functions are from TS 18661-4:2015.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double acospi (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float acospif (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} acospil (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN acospifN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx acospifNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{TS 18661-4:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions compute the arccosine of @var{x}, divided by pi. The
result is in the interval between @code{0} and @code{1} (inclusive).
The arccosine function is defined mathematically only
over the domain @code{-1} to @code{1}. If @var{x} is outside the
domain, @code{acospi} signals a domain error.
The @code{acospi} functions are from TS 18661-4:2015.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double atanpi (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float atanpif (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} atanpil (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN atanpifN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx atanpifNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{TS 18661-4:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions compute the arctangent of @var{x}, divided by pi. The
result is in the interval between @code{-0.5} and @code{0.5}
(inclusive).
The @code{atanpi} functions are from TS 18661-4:2015.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double atan2pi (double @var{y}, double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float atan2pif (float @var{y}, float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} atan2pil (long double @var{y}, long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN atan2pifN (_Float@var{N} @var{y}, _Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx atan2pifNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{y}, _Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{TS 18661-4:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These function computes the arctangent of @var{y}/@var{x}, divided by
pi, with the signs of both arguments used to determine the quadrant of
the result, as for @code{atan2}.
The @code{atan2pi} functions are from TS 18661-4:2015.
@end deftypefun
@cindex inverse complex trigonometric functions
@w{ISO C99} defines complex versions of the inverse trig functions.
@deftypefun {complex double} casin (complex double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex float} casinf (complex float @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex long double} casinl (complex long double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatN} casinfN (complex _Float@var{N} @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatNx} casinfNx (complex _Float@var{N}x @var{z})
@standards{ISO, complex.h}
@standardsx{casinfN, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@standardsx{casinfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions compute the complex arcsine of @var{z}---that is, the
value whose sine is @var{z}. The value returned is in radians.
Unlike the real-valued functions, @code{casin} is defined for all
values of @var{z}.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun {complex double} cacos (complex double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex float} cacosf (complex float @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex long double} cacosl (complex long double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatN} cacosfN (complex _Float@var{N} @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatNx} cacosfNx (complex _Float@var{N}x @var{z})
@standards{ISO, complex.h}
@standardsx{cacosfN, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@standardsx{cacosfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions compute the complex arccosine of @var{z}---that is, the
value whose cosine is @var{z}. The value returned is in radians.
Unlike the real-valued functions, @code{cacos} is defined for all
values of @var{z}.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun {complex double} catan (complex double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex float} catanf (complex float @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex long double} catanl (complex long double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatN} catanfN (complex _Float@var{N} @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatNx} catanfNx (complex _Float@var{N}x @var{z})
@standards{ISO, complex.h}
@standardsx{catanfN, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@standardsx{catanfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions compute the complex arctangent of @var{z}---that is,
the value whose tangent is @var{z}. The value is in units of radians.
@end deftypefun
@node Exponents and Logarithms
@section Exponentiation and Logarithms
@cindex exponentiation functions
@cindex power functions
@cindex logarithm functions
@deftypefun double exp (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float expf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} expl (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN expfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx expfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{expfN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{expfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions compute @code{e} (the base of natural logarithms) raised
to the power @var{x}.
If the magnitude of the result is too large to be representable,
@code{exp} signals overflow.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double exp2 (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float exp2f (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} exp2l (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN exp2fN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx exp2fNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{exp2fN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{exp2fNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions compute @code{2} raised to the power @var{x}.
Mathematically, @code{exp2 (x)} is the same as @code{exp (x * log (2))}.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double exp10 (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float exp10f (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} exp10l (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN exp10fN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx exp10fNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{exp10fN, TS 18661-4:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{exp10fNx, TS 18661-4:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions compute @code{10} raised to the power @var{x}.
Mathematically, @code{exp10 (x)} is the same as @code{exp (x * log (10))}.
The @code{exp10} functions are from TS 18661-4:2015.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double log (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float logf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} logl (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN logfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx logfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{logfN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{logfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions compute the natural logarithm of @var{x}. @code{exp (log
(@var{x}))} equals @var{x}, exactly in mathematics and approximately in
C.
If @var{x} is negative, @code{log} signals a domain error. If @var{x}
is zero, it returns negative infinity; if @var{x} is too close to zero,
it may signal overflow.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double log10 (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float log10f (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} log10l (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN log10fN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx log10fNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{log10fN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{log10fNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the base-10 logarithm of @var{x}.
@code{log10 (@var{x})} equals @code{log (@var{x}) / log (10)}.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double log2 (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float log2f (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} log2l (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN log2fN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx log2fNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{log2fN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{log2fNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the base-2 logarithm of @var{x}.
@code{log2 (@var{x})} equals @code{log (@var{x}) / log (2)}.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double logb (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float logbf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} logbl (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN logbfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx logbfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{logbfN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{logbfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions extract the exponent of @var{x} and return it as a
floating-point value.
If @code{FLT_RADIX} is two,
@code{logb (x)} is similar to @code{floor (log2 (fabs (x)))},
except that the latter may give an incorrect integer
due to intermediate rounding.
If @var{x} is de-normalized, @code{logb} returns the exponent @var{x}
would have if it were normalized. If @var{x} is infinity (positive or
negative), @code{logb} returns @math{@infinity{}}. If @var{x} is zero,
@code{logb} returns @math{@infinity{}}. It does not signal.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun int ilogb (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx int ilogbf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx int ilogbl (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx int ilogbfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx int ilogbfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long int} llogb (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long int} llogbf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long int} llogbl (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long int} llogbfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long int} llogbfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{ilogbfN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{ilogbfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{llogbfN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{llogbfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions are equivalent to the corresponding @code{logb}
functions except that they return signed integer values. The
@code{ilogb}, @code{ilogbf}, and @code{ilogbl} functions are from ISO
C99; the @code{llogb}, @code{llogbf}, @code{llogbl} functions are from
TS 18661-1:2014; the @code{ilogbfN}, @code{ilogbfNx}, @code{llogbfN},
and @code{llogbfNx} functions are from TS 18661-3:2015.
@end deftypefun
@noindent
Since integers cannot represent infinity and NaN, @code{ilogb} instead
returns an integer that can't be the exponent of a normal floating-point
number. @file{math.h} defines constants so you can check for this.
@deftypevr Macro int FP_ILOGB0
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@code{ilogb} returns this value if its argument is @code{0}. The
numeric value is either @code{INT_MIN} or @code{-INT_MAX}.
This macro is defined in @w{ISO C99}.
@end deftypevr
@deftypevr Macro {long int} FP_LLOGB0
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@code{llogb} returns this value if its argument is @code{0}. The
numeric value is either @code{LONG_MIN} or @code{-LONG_MAX}.
This macro is defined in TS 18661-1:2014.
@end deftypevr
@deftypevr Macro int FP_ILOGBNAN
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@code{ilogb} returns this value if its argument is @code{NaN}. The
numeric value is either @code{INT_MIN} or @code{INT_MAX}.
This macro is defined in @w{ISO C99}.
@end deftypevr
@deftypevr Macro {long int} FP_LLOGBNAN
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@code{llogb} returns this value if its argument is @code{NaN}. The
numeric value is either @code{LONG_MIN} or @code{LONG_MAX}.
This macro is defined in TS 18661-1:2014.
@end deftypevr
These values are system specific. They might even be the same. The
proper way to test the result of @code{ilogb} is as follows:
@smallexample
i = ilogb (f);
if (i == FP_ILOGB0 || i == FP_ILOGBNAN)
@{
if (isnan (f))
@{
/* @r{Handle NaN.} */
@}
else if (f == 0.0)
@{
/* @r{Handle 0.0.} */
@}
else
@{
/* @r{Some other value with large exponent,}
@r{perhaps +Inf.} */
@}
@}
@end smallexample
@deftypefun double pow (double @var{base}, double @var{power})
@deftypefunx float powf (float @var{base}, float @var{power})
@deftypefunx {long double} powl (long double @var{base}, long double @var{power})
@deftypefunx _FloatN powfN (_Float@var{N} @var{base}, _Float@var{N} @var{power})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx powfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{base}, _Float@var{N}x @var{power})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{powfN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{powfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These are general exponentiation functions, returning @var{base} raised
to @var{power}.
Mathematically, @code{pow} would return a complex number when @var{base}
is negative and @var{power} is not an integral value. @code{pow} can't
do that, so instead it signals a domain error. @code{pow} may also
underflow or overflow the destination type.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double powr (double @var{base}, double @var{power})
@deftypefunx float powrf (float @var{base}, float @var{power})
@deftypefunx {long double} powrl (long double @var{base}, long double @var{power})
@deftypefunx _FloatN powrfN (_Float@var{N} @var{base}, _Float@var{N} @var{power})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx powrfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{base}, _Float@var{N}x @var{power})
@standards{TS 18661-4:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These return @var{base} raised to @var{power}, but with special cases
based on @code{exp (power * log (base))}. For example, if @var{base}
is negative, the @code{powr} functions always signal a domain error,
but this is valid for @code{pow} if @var{power} is an integer.
The @code{powr} functions are from TS 18661-4:2015.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double pown (double @var{base}, long long int @var{power})
@deftypefunx float pownf (float @var{base}, long long int @var{power})
@deftypefunx {long double} pownl (long double @var{base}, long long int @var{power})
@deftypefunx _FloatN pownfN (_Float@var{N} @var{base}, long long int @var{power})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx pownfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{base}, long long int @var{power})
@standards{TS 18661-4:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These return @var{base} raised to @var{power} (an integer).
The @code{pown} functions are from TS 18661-4:2015 (which used
@code{intmax_t} as the type of @var{power}; the type changed to
@code{long long int} in C23).
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double compoundn (double @var{x}, long long int @var{power})
@deftypefunx float compoundnf (float @var{x}, long long int @var{power})
@deftypefunx {long double} compoundnl (long double @var{x}, long long int @var{power})
@deftypefunx _FloatN compoundnfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x}, long long int @var{power})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx compoundnfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x}, long long int @var{power})
@standards{TS 18661-4:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These return @code{1 + @var{x}} raised to @var{power} (an integer).
If @var{x} is less than @minus{}1, @code{compoundn} signals a domain
error.
The @code{compoundn} functions are from TS 18661-4:2015 (which used
@code{intmax_t} as the type of @var{power}; the type changed to
@code{long long int} in C23).
@end deftypefun
@cindex square root function
@deftypefun double sqrt (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float sqrtf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} sqrtl (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN sqrtfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx sqrtfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{sqrtfN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{sqrtfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the nonnegative square root of @var{x}.
If @var{x} is negative, @code{sqrt} signals a domain error.
Mathematically, it should return a complex number.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double rsqrt (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float rsqrtf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} rsqrtl (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN rsqrtfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx rsqrtfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{TS 18661-4:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the reciprocal of the nonnegative square root of @var{x}.
If @var{x} is negative, @code{rsqrt} signals a domain error.
The @code{rsqrt} functions are from TS 18661-4:2015.
@end deftypefun
@cindex cube root function
@deftypefun double cbrt (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float cbrtf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} cbrtl (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN cbrtfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx cbrtfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{BSD, math.h}
@standardsx{cbrtfN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{cbrtfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the cube root of @var{x}.
They cannot fail;
every representable real value
has a real cube root,
and rounding it to a representable value
never causes overflow nor underflow.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double hypot (double @var{x}, double @var{y})
@deftypefunx float hypotf (float @var{x}, float @var{y})
@deftypefunx {long double} hypotl (long double @var{x}, long double @var{y})
@deftypefunx _FloatN hypotfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x}, _Float@var{N} @var{y})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx hypotfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x}, _Float@var{N}x @var{y})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{hypotfN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{hypotfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return @code{sqrt (@var{x}*@var{x} +
@var{y}*@var{y})}. This is the length of the hypotenuse of a right
triangle with sides of length @var{x} and @var{y}, or the distance
of the point (@var{x}, @var{y}) from the origin. Using this function
instead of the direct formula is wise, since the error is
much smaller. See also the function @code{cabs} in @ref{Absolute Value}.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double rootn (double @var{x}, long long int @var{n})
@deftypefunx float rootnf (float @var{x}, long long int @var{n})
@deftypefunx {long double} rootnl (long double @var{x}, long long int @var{n})
@deftypefunx _FloatN rootnfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x}, long long int @var{n})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx rootnfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x}, long long int @var{n})
@standards{TS 18661-4:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These return the @var{n}th root of @var{x}. If @var{n} is zero, or if
@var{x} is negative and @var{n} is even, @code{rootn} signals a domain
error.
The @code{rootn} functions are from TS 18661-4:2015 (which used
@code{intmax_t} as the type of @var{n}; the type changed to
@code{long long int} in C23).
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double expm1 (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float expm1f (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} expm1l (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN expm1fN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx expm1fNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{expm1fN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{expm1fNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return a value equivalent to @code{exp (@var{x}) - 1}.
They are computed in a way that is accurate even if @var{x} is
near zero---a case where @code{exp (@var{x}) - 1} would be inaccurate owing
to subtraction of two numbers that are nearly equal.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double exp2m1 (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float exp2m1f (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} exp2m1l (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN exp2m1fN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx exp2m1fNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{TS 18661-4:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return a value equivalent to @code{exp2 (@var{x}) - 1}.
They are computed in a way that is accurate even if @var{x} is
near zero---a case where @code{exp2 (@var{x}) - 1} would be inaccurate owing
to subtraction of two numbers that are nearly equal.
The @code{exp2m1} functions are from TS 18661-4:2015.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double exp10m1 (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float exp10m1f (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} exp10m1l (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN exp10m1fN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx exp10m1fNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{TS 18661-4:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return a value equivalent to @code{exp10 (@var{x}) - 1}.
They are computed in a way that is accurate even if @var{x} is
near zero---a case where @code{exp10 (@var{x}) - 1} would be inaccurate owing
to subtraction of two numbers that are nearly equal.
The @code{exp10m1} functions are from TS 18661-4:2015.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double log1p (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float log1pf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} log1pl (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN log1pfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx log1pfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@deftypefunx double logp1 (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float logp1f (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} logp1l (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN logp1fN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx logp1fNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{log1pfN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{log1pfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{logp1, TS 18661-4:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{logp1f, TS 18661-4:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{logp1l, TS 18661-4:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{logp1fN, TS 18661-4:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{logp1fNx, TS 18661-4:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return a value equivalent to @w{@code{log (1 + @var{x})}}.
They are computed in a way that is accurate even if @var{x} is
near zero.
The @code{logp1} names for these functions are from TS 18661-4:2015.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double log2p1 (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float log2p1f (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} log2p1l (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN log2p1fN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx log2p1fNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{TS 18661-4:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return a value equivalent to @w{@code{log2 (1 + @var{x})}}.
They are computed in a way that is accurate even if @var{x} is
near zero.
The @code{log2p1} functions are from TS 18661-4:2015.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double log10p1 (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float log10p1f (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} log10p1l (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN log10p1fN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx log10p1fNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{TS 18661-4:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return a value equivalent to @w{@code{log10 (1 + @var{x})}}.
They are computed in a way that is accurate even if @var{x} is
near zero.
The @code{log10p1} functions are from TS 18661-4:2015.
@end deftypefun
@cindex complex exponentiation functions
@cindex complex logarithm functions
@w{ISO C99} defines complex variants of some of the exponentiation and
logarithm functions.
@deftypefun {complex double} cexp (complex double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex float} cexpf (complex float @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex long double} cexpl (complex long double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatN} cexpfN (complex _Float@var{N} @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatNx} cexpfNx (complex _Float@var{N}x @var{z})
@standards{ISO, complex.h}
@standardsx{cexpfN, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@standardsx{cexpfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return @code{e} (the base of natural
logarithms) raised to the power of @var{z}.
Mathematically, this corresponds to the value
@ifnottex
@math{exp (z) = exp (creal (z)) * (cos (cimag (z)) + I * sin (cimag (z)))}
@end ifnottex
@tex
$$\exp(z) = e^z = e^{{\rm Re}\,z} (\cos ({\rm Im}\,z) + i \sin ({\rm Im}\,z))$$
@end tex
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun {complex double} clog (complex double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex float} clogf (complex float @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex long double} clogl (complex long double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatN} clogfN (complex _Float@var{N} @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatNx} clogfNx (complex _Float@var{N}x @var{z})
@standards{ISO, complex.h}
@standardsx{clogfN, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@standardsx{clogfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the natural logarithm of @var{z}.
Mathematically, this corresponds to the value
@ifnottex
@math{log (z) = log (cabs (z)) + I * carg (z)}
@end ifnottex
@tex
$$\log(z) = \log |z| + i \arg z$$
@end tex
@noindent
@code{clog} has a pole at 0, and will signal overflow if @var{z} equals
or is very close to 0. It is well-defined for all other values of
@var{z}.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun {complex double} clog10 (complex double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex float} clog10f (complex float @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex long double} clog10l (complex long double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatN} clog10fN (complex _Float@var{N} @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatNx} clog10fNx (complex _Float@var{N}x @var{z})
@standards{GNU, complex.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the base 10 logarithm of the complex value
@var{z}. Mathematically, this corresponds to the value
@ifnottex
@math{log10 (z) = log10 (cabs (z)) + I * carg (z) / log (10)}
@end ifnottex
@tex
$$\log_{10}(z) = \log_{10}|z| + i \arg z / \log (10)$$
@end tex
All these functions, including the @code{_Float@var{N}} and
@code{_Float@var{N}x} variants, are GNU extensions.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun {complex double} csqrt (complex double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex float} csqrtf (complex float @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex long double} csqrtl (complex long double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatN} csqrtfN (_Float@var{N} @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatNx} csqrtfNx (complex _Float@var{N}x @var{z})
@standards{ISO, complex.h}
@standardsx{csqrtfN, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@standardsx{csqrtfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the complex square root of the argument @var{z}. Unlike
the real-valued functions, they are defined for all values of @var{z}.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun {complex double} cpow (complex double @var{base}, complex double @var{power})
@deftypefunx {complex float} cpowf (complex float @var{base}, complex float @var{power})
@deftypefunx {complex long double} cpowl (complex long double @var{base}, complex long double @var{power})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatN} cpowfN (complex _Float@var{N} @var{base}, complex _Float@var{N} @var{power})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatNx} cpowfNx (complex _Float@var{N}x @var{base}, complex _Float@var{N}x @var{power})
@standards{ISO, complex.h}
@standardsx{cpowfN, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@standardsx{cpowfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return @var{base} raised to the power of
@var{power}. This is equivalent to @w{@code{cexp (y * clog (x))}}
@end deftypefun
@node Hyperbolic Functions
@section Hyperbolic Functions
@cindex hyperbolic functions
The functions in this section are related to the exponential functions;
see @ref{Exponents and Logarithms}.
@deftypefun double sinh (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float sinhf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} sinhl (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN sinhfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx sinhfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{sinhfN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{sinhfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the hyperbolic sine of @var{x}, defined
mathematically as @w{@code{(exp (@var{x}) - exp (-@var{x})) / 2}}. They
may signal overflow if @var{x} is too large.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double cosh (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float coshf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} coshl (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN coshfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx coshfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{coshfN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{coshfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the hyperbolic cosine of @var{x},
defined mathematically as @w{@code{(exp (@var{x}) + exp (-@var{x})) / 2}}.
They may signal overflow if @var{x} is too large.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double tanh (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float tanhf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} tanhl (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN tanhfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx tanhfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{tanhfN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{tanhfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the hyperbolic tangent of @var{x},
defined mathematically as @w{@code{sinh (@var{x}) / cosh (@var{x})}}.
They may signal overflow if @var{x} is too large.
@end deftypefun
@cindex hyperbolic functions
There are counterparts for the hyperbolic functions which take
complex arguments.
@deftypefun {complex double} csinh (complex double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex float} csinhf (complex float @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex long double} csinhl (complex long double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatN} csinhfN (complex _Float@var{N} @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatNx} csinhfNx (complex _Float@var{N}x @var{z})
@standards{ISO, complex.h}
@standardsx{csinhfN, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@standardsx{csinhfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the complex hyperbolic sine of @var{z}, defined
mathematically as @w{@code{(exp (@var{z}) - exp (-@var{z})) / 2}}.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun {complex double} ccosh (complex double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex float} ccoshf (complex float @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex long double} ccoshl (complex long double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatN} ccoshfN (complex _Float@var{N} @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatNx} ccoshfNx (complex _Float@var{N}x @var{z})
@standards{ISO, complex.h}
@standardsx{ccoshfN, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@standardsx{ccoshfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the complex hyperbolic cosine of @var{z}, defined
mathematically as @w{@code{(exp (@var{z}) + exp (-@var{z})) / 2}}.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun {complex double} ctanh (complex double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex float} ctanhf (complex float @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex long double} ctanhl (complex long double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatN} ctanhfN (complex _Float@var{N} @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatNx} ctanhfNx (complex _Float@var{N}x @var{z})
@standards{ISO, complex.h}
@standardsx{ctanhfN, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@standardsx{ctanhfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the complex hyperbolic tangent of @var{z},
defined mathematically as @w{@code{csinh (@var{z}) / ccosh (@var{z})}}.
@end deftypefun
@cindex inverse hyperbolic functions
@deftypefun double asinh (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float asinhf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} asinhl (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN asinhfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx asinhfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{asinhfN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{asinhfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the inverse hyperbolic sine of @var{x}---the
value whose hyperbolic sine is @var{x}.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double acosh (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float acoshf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} acoshl (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN acoshfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx acoshfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{acoshfN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{acoshfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the inverse hyperbolic cosine of @var{x}---the
value whose hyperbolic cosine is @var{x}. If @var{x} is less than
@code{1}, @code{acosh} signals a domain error.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double atanh (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float atanhf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} atanhl (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN atanhfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx atanhfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{atanhfN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{atanhfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the inverse hyperbolic tangent of @var{x}---the
value whose hyperbolic tangent is @var{x}. If the absolute value of
@var{x} is greater than @code{1}, @code{atanh} signals a domain error;
if it is equal to 1, @code{atanh} returns infinity.
@end deftypefun
@cindex inverse complex hyperbolic functions
@deftypefun {complex double} casinh (complex double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex float} casinhf (complex float @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex long double} casinhl (complex long double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatN} casinhfN (complex _Float@var{N} @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatNx} casinhfNx (complex _Float@var{N}x @var{z})
@standards{ISO, complex.h}
@standardsx{casinhfN, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@standardsx{casinhfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the inverse complex hyperbolic sine of
@var{z}---the value whose complex hyperbolic sine is @var{z}.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun {complex double} cacosh (complex double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex float} cacoshf (complex float @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex long double} cacoshl (complex long double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatN} cacoshfN (complex _Float@var{N} @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatNx} cacoshfNx (complex _Float@var{N}x @var{z})
@standards{ISO, complex.h}
@standardsx{cacoshfN, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@standardsx{cacoshfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the inverse complex hyperbolic cosine of
@var{z}---the value whose complex hyperbolic cosine is @var{z}. Unlike
the real-valued functions, there are no restrictions on the value of @var{z}.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun {complex double} catanh (complex double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex float} catanhf (complex float @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex long double} catanhl (complex long double @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatN} catanhfN (complex _Float@var{N} @var{z})
@deftypefunx {complex _FloatNx} catanhfNx (complex _Float@var{N}x @var{z})
@standards{ISO, complex.h}
@standardsx{catanhfN, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@standardsx{catanhfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, complex.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions return the inverse complex hyperbolic tangent of
@var{z}---the value whose complex hyperbolic tangent is @var{z}. Unlike
the real-valued functions, there are no restrictions on the value of
@var{z}.
@end deftypefun
@node Special Functions
@section Special Functions
@cindex special functions
@cindex Bessel functions
@cindex gamma function
These are some more exotic mathematical functions which are sometimes
useful. Currently they only have real-valued versions.
@deftypefun double erf (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float erff (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} erfl (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN erffN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx erffNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{SVID, math.h}
@standardsx{erffN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{erffNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
@code{erf} returns the error function of @var{x}. The error
function is defined as
@tex
$$\hbox{erf}(x) = {2\over\sqrt{\pi}}\cdot\int_0^x e^{-t^2} \hbox{d}t$$
@end tex
@ifnottex
@smallexample
erf (x) = 2/sqrt(pi) * integral from 0 to x of exp(-t^2) dt
@end smallexample
@end ifnottex
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double erfc (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float erfcf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} erfcl (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN erfcfN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx erfcfNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{SVID, math.h}
@standardsx{erfcfN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{erfcfNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
@code{erfc} returns @code{1.0 - erf(@var{x})}, but computed in a
fashion that avoids round-off error when @var{x} is large.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double lgamma (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float lgammaf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} lgammal (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN lgammafN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx lgammafNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{SVID, math.h}
@standardsx{lgammafN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{lgammafNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtunsafe{@mtasurace{:signgam}}@asunsafe{}@acsafe{}}
@code{lgamma} returns the natural logarithm of the absolute value of
the gamma function of @var{x}. The gamma function is defined as
@tex
$$\Gamma(x) = \int_0^\infty t^{x-1} e^{-t} \hbox{d}t$$
@end tex
@ifnottex
@smallexample
gamma (x) = integral from 0 to @infinity{} of t^(x-1) e^-t dt
@end smallexample
@end ifnottex
@vindex signgam
The sign of the gamma function is stored in the global variable
@var{signgam}, which is declared in @file{math.h}. It is @code{1} if
the intermediate result was positive or zero, or @code{-1} if it was
negative.
To compute the real gamma function you can use the @code{tgamma}
function or you can compute the values as follows:
@smallexample
lgam = lgamma(x);
gam = signgam*exp(lgam);
@end smallexample
The gamma function has singularities at the non-positive integers.
@code{lgamma} will raise the zero divide exception if evaluated at a
singularity.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double lgamma_r (double @var{x}, int *@var{signp})
@deftypefunx float lgammaf_r (float @var{x}, int *@var{signp})
@deftypefunx {long double} lgammal_r (long double @var{x}, int *@var{signp})
@deftypefunx _FloatN lgammafN_r (_Float@var{N} @var{x}, int *@var{signp})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx lgammafNx_r (_Float@var{N}x @var{x}, int *@var{signp})
@standards{XPG, math.h}
@standardsx{lgammafN_r, GNU, math.h}
@standardsx{lgammafNx_r, GNU, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
@code{lgamma_r} is just like @code{lgamma}, but it stores the sign of
the intermediate result in the variable pointed to by @var{signp}
instead of in the @var{signgam} global. This means it is reentrant.
The @code{lgammaf@var{N}_r} and @code{lgammaf@var{N}x_r} functions are
GNU extensions.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double gamma (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float gammaf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} gammal (long double @var{x})
@standards{SVID, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtunsafe{@mtasurace{:signgam}}@asunsafe{}@acsafe{}}
These functions exist for compatibility reasons. They are equivalent to
@code{lgamma} etc. It is better to use @code{lgamma} since for one the
name reflects better the actual computation, and moreover @code{lgamma} is
standardized in @w{ISO C99} while @code{gamma} is not.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double tgamma (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float tgammaf (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} tgammal (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN tgammafN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx tgammafNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standardsx{tgamma, XPG, math.h}
@standardsx{tgamma, ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{tgammaf, XPG, math.h}
@standardsx{tgammaf, ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{tgammal, XPG, math.h}
@standardsx{tgammal, ISO, math.h}
@standardsx{tgammafN, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@standardsx{tgammafNx, TS 18661-3:2015, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
@code{tgamma} applies the gamma function to @var{x}. The gamma
function is defined as
@tex
$$\Gamma(x) = \int_0^\infty t^{x-1} e^{-t} \hbox{d}t$$
@end tex
@ifnottex
@smallexample
gamma (x) = integral from 0 to @infinity{} of t^(x-1) e^-t dt
@end smallexample
@end ifnottex
This function was introduced in @w{ISO C99}. The @code{_Float@var{N}}
and @code{_Float@var{N}x} variants were introduced in @w{ISO/IEC TS
18661-3}.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double j0 (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float j0f (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} j0l (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN j0fN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx j0fNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{SVID, math.h}
@standardsx{j0fN, GNU, math.h}
@standardsx{j0fNx, GNU, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
@code{j0} returns the Bessel function of the first kind of order 0 of
@var{x}. It may signal underflow if @var{x} is too large.
The @code{_Float@var{N}} and @code{_Float@var{N}x} variants are GNU
extensions.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double j1 (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float j1f (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} j1l (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN j1fN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx j1fNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{SVID, math.h}
@standardsx{j1fN, GNU, math.h}
@standardsx{j1fNx, GNU, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
@code{j1} returns the Bessel function of the first kind of order 1 of
@var{x}. It may signal underflow if @var{x} is too large.
The @code{_Float@var{N}} and @code{_Float@var{N}x} variants are GNU
extensions.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double jn (int @var{n}, double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float jnf (int @var{n}, float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} jnl (int @var{n}, long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN jnfN (int @var{n}, _Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx jnfNx (int @var{n}, _Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{SVID, math.h}
@standardsx{jnfN, GNU, math.h}
@standardsx{jnfNx, GNU, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
@code{jn} returns the Bessel function of the first kind of order
@var{n} of @var{x}. It may signal underflow if @var{x} is too large.
The @code{_Float@var{N}} and @code{_Float@var{N}x} variants are GNU
extensions.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double y0 (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float y0f (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} y0l (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN y0fN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx y0fNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{SVID, math.h}
@standardsx{y0fN, GNU, math.h}
@standardsx{y0fNx, GNU, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
@code{y0} returns the Bessel function of the second kind of order 0 of
@var{x}. It may signal underflow if @var{x} is too large. If @var{x}
is negative, @code{y0} signals a domain error; if it is zero,
@code{y0} signals overflow and returns @math{-@infinity}.
The @code{_Float@var{N}} and @code{_Float@var{N}x} variants are GNU
extensions.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double y1 (double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float y1f (float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} y1l (long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN y1fN (_Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx y1fNx (_Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{SVID, math.h}
@standardsx{y1fN, GNU, math.h}
@standardsx{y1fNx, GNU, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
@code{y1} returns the Bessel function of the second kind of order 1 of
@var{x}. It may signal underflow if @var{x} is too large. If @var{x}
is negative, @code{y1} signals a domain error; if it is zero,
@code{y1} signals overflow and returns @math{-@infinity}.
The @code{_Float@var{N}} and @code{_Float@var{N}x} variants are GNU
extensions.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double yn (int @var{n}, double @var{x})
@deftypefunx float ynf (int @var{n}, float @var{x})
@deftypefunx {long double} ynl (int @var{n}, long double @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatN ynfN (int @var{n}, _Float@var{N} @var{x})
@deftypefunx _FloatNx ynfNx (int @var{n}, _Float@var{N}x @var{x})
@standards{SVID, math.h}
@standardsx{ynfN, GNU, math.h}
@standardsx{ynfNx, GNU, math.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
@code{yn} returns the Bessel function of the second kind of order @var{n} of
@var{x}. It may signal underflow if @var{x} is too large. If @var{x}
is negative, @code{yn} signals a domain error; if it is zero,
@code{yn} signals overflow and returns @math{-@infinity}.
The @code{_Float@var{N}} and @code{_Float@var{N}x} variants are GNU
extensions.
@end deftypefun
@node Errors in Math Functions
@section Errors in Math Functions
@cindex math errors
@cindex ulps
Errors are measured in ``units of the last place''. This is a
measure for the relative error. For a number @math{z} with the
representation @math{d.d@dots{}d@mul{}2^e} (we assume IEEE
floating-point numbers with base 2) the ULP is represented by
@tex
$${|d.d\dots d - (z/2^e)|}\over {2^{p-1}}$$
@end tex
@ifnottex
@smallexample
|d.d...d - (z / 2^e)| / 2^(p - 1)
@end smallexample
@end ifnottex
@noindent
where @math{p} is the number of bits in the mantissa of the
floating-point number representation. Ideally the error for all
functions is always less than 0.5ulps in round-to-nearest mode. Using
rounding bits this is also
possible and normally implemented for the basic operations. Except
for certain functions such as @code{sqrt}, @code{fma} and @code{rint}
whose results are fully specified by reference to corresponding IEEE
754 floating-point operations, and conversions between strings and
floating point, @theglibc{} does not aim for correctly rounded results
for functions in the math library, and does not aim for correctness in
whether ``inexact'' exceptions are raised. Instead, the goals for
accuracy of functions without fully specified results are as follows;
some functions have bugs meaning they do not meet these goals in all
cases. In the future, @theglibc{} may provide some other correctly
rounding functions under the names such as @code{crsin} proposed for
an extension to ISO C.
@itemize @bullet
@item
Each function with a floating-point result behaves as if it computes
an infinite-precision result that is within a few ulp (in both real
and complex parts, for functions with complex results) of the
mathematically correct value of the function (interpreted together
with ISO C or POSIX semantics for the function in question) at the
exact value passed as the input. Exceptions are raised appropriately
for this value and in accordance with IEEE 754 / ISO C / POSIX
semantics, and it is then rounded according to the current rounding
direction to the result that is returned to the user. @code{errno}
may also be set (@pxref{Math Error Reporting}). (The ``inexact''
exception may be raised, or not raised, even if this is inconsistent
with the infinite-precision value.)
@item
For the IBM @code{long double} format, as used on PowerPC GNU/Linux,
the accuracy goal is weaker for input values not exactly representable
in 106 bits of precision; it is as if the input value is some value
within 0.5ulp of the value actually passed, where ``ulp'' is
interpreted in terms of a fixed-precision 106-bit mantissa, but not
necessarily the exact value actually passed with discontiguous
mantissa bits.
@item
For the IBM @code{long double} format, functions whose results are
fully specified by reference to corresponding IEEE 754 floating-point
operations have the same accuracy goals as other functions, but with
the error bound being the same as that for division (3ulp).
Furthermore, ``inexact'' and ``underflow'' exceptions may be raised
for all functions for any inputs, even where such exceptions are
inconsistent with the returned value, since the underlying
floating-point arithmetic has that property.
@item
Functions behave as if the infinite-precision result computed is zero,
infinity or NaN if and only if that is the mathematically correct
infinite-precision result. They behave as if the infinite-precision
result computed always has the same sign as the mathematically correct
result.
@item
If the mathematical result is more than a few ulp above the overflow
threshold for the current rounding direction, the value returned is
the appropriate overflow value for the current rounding direction,
with the overflow exception raised.
@item
If the mathematical result has magnitude well below half the least
subnormal magnitude, the returned value is either zero or the least
subnormal (in each case, with the correct sign), according to the
current rounding direction and with the underflow exception raised.
@item
Where the mathematical result underflows (before rounding) and is not
exactly representable as a floating-point value, the function does not
behave as if the computed infinite-precision result is an exact value
in the subnormal range. This means that the underflow exception is
raised other than possibly for cases where the mathematical result is
very close to the underflow threshold and the function behaves as if
it computes an infinite-precision result that does not underflow. (So
there may be spurious underflow exceptions in cases where the
underflowing result is exact, but not missing underflow exceptions in
cases where it is inexact.)
@item
@Theglibc{} does not aim for functions to satisfy other properties of
the underlying mathematical function, such as monotonicity, where not
implied by the above goals.
@item
All the above applies to both real and complex parts, for complex
functions.
@end itemize
Therefore many of the functions in the math library have errors. The
math testsuite only flags results larger than 9ulp (or 16 for IBM
@code{long double} format) as errors; although most of the implementations
show errors smaller than the limit.
A more comprehensive analysis of @theglibc{} math functions precision could
be found in 'Accuracy of Mathematical Functions in Single, Double, Double
Extended, and Quadruple Precision'; Brian Gladman, Vincenzo Innocente,
John Mather, and Paul Zimmermann at
@url{<https://inria.hal.science/hal-03141101>}. It does not cover complex
functions, nor @code{jn}/@code{yn}, and it is only for x86_64, and for
rounding to nearest, and does not cover any architecture variations (in
particular IBM @code{long double} is out of scope).
For complex functions, some analysis of @theglibc{} math functions can be
found in 'Accuracy of Complex Mathematical Operations and Functions in Single
and Double Precision'; Paul Caprioli, Vincenzo Innocente, Paul Zimmermann
at @url{https://inria.hal.science/hal-04714173}. It only covers @code{float}
and @code{double}, only for x86_64, and for rounding to nearest, and does not
cover any architecture variations.
@node Pseudo-Random Numbers
@section Pseudo-Random Numbers
@cindex random numbers
@cindex pseudo-random numbers
@cindex seed (for random numbers)
This section describes the GNU facilities for generating a series of
pseudo-random numbers. The numbers generated are not truly random;
typically, they form a sequence that repeats periodically, with a period
so large that you can ignore it for ordinary purposes. The random
number generator works by remembering a @dfn{seed} value which it uses
to compute the next random number and also to compute a new seed.
Although the generated numbers look unpredictable within one run of a
program, the sequence of numbers is @emph{exactly the same} from one run
to the next. This is because the initial seed is always the same. This
is convenient when you are debugging a program, but it is unhelpful if
you want the program to behave unpredictably. If you want a different
pseudo-random series each time your program runs, you must specify a
different seed each time. For ordinary purposes, basing the seed on the
current time works well. For random numbers in cryptography,
@pxref{Unpredictable Bytes}.
You can obtain repeatable sequences of numbers on a particular machine type
by specifying the same initial seed value for the random number
generator. There is no standard meaning for a particular seed value;
the same seed, used in different C libraries or on different CPU types,
will give you different random numbers.
@Theglibc{} supports the standard @w{ISO C} random number functions
plus two other sets derived from BSD and SVID. The BSD and @w{ISO C}
functions provide identical, somewhat limited functionality. If only a
small number of random bits are required, we recommend you use the
@w{ISO C} interface, @code{rand} and @code{srand}. The SVID functions
provide a more flexible interface, which allows better random number
generator algorithms, provides more random bits (up to 48) per call, and
can provide random floating-point numbers. These functions are required
by the XPG standard and therefore will be present in all modern Unix
systems.
@menu
* ISO Random:: @code{rand} and friends.
* BSD Random:: @code{random} and friends.
* SVID Random:: @code{drand48} and friends.
* High Quality Random:: @code{arc4random} and friends.
@end menu
@node ISO Random
@subsection ISO C Random Number Functions
This section describes the random number functions that are part of
the @w{ISO C} standard.
To use these facilities, you should include the header file
@file{stdlib.h} in your program.
@pindex stdlib.h
@deftypevr Macro int RAND_MAX
@standards{ISO, stdlib.h}
The value of this macro is an integer constant representing the largest
value the @code{rand} function can return. In @theglibc{}, it is
@code{2147483647}, which is the largest signed integer representable in
32 bits. In other libraries, it may be as low as @code{32767}.
@end deftypevr
@deftypefun int rand (void)
@standards{ISO, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@asunsafe{@asulock{}}@acunsafe{@aculock{}}}
@c Just calls random.
The @code{rand} function returns the next pseudo-random number in the
series. The value ranges from @code{0} to @code{RAND_MAX}.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun void srand (unsigned int @var{seed})
@standards{ISO, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@asunsafe{@asulock{}}@acunsafe{@aculock{}}}
@c Alias to srandom.
This function establishes @var{seed} as the seed for a new series of
pseudo-random numbers. If you call @code{rand} before a seed has been
established with @code{srand}, it uses the value @code{1} as a default
seed.
To produce a different pseudo-random series each time your program is
run, do @code{srand (time (0))}.
@end deftypefun
POSIX.1 extended the C standard functions to support reproducible random
numbers in multi-threaded programs. However, the extension is badly
designed and unsuitable for serious work.
@deftypefun int rand_r (unsigned int *@var{seed})
@standards{POSIX.1, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@assafe{}@acsafe{}}
This function returns a random number in the range 0 to @code{RAND_MAX}
just as @code{rand} does. However, all its state is stored in the
@var{seed} argument. This means the RNG's state can only have as many
bits as the type @code{unsigned int} has. This is far too few to
provide a good RNG.
If your program requires a reentrant RNG, we recommend you use the
reentrant GNU extensions to the SVID random number generator. The
POSIX.1 interface should only be used when the GNU extensions are not
available.
@end deftypefun
@node BSD Random
@subsection BSD Random Number Functions
This section describes a set of random number generation functions that
are derived from BSD. There is no advantage to using these functions
with @theglibc{}; we support them for BSD compatibility only.
The prototypes for these functions are in @file{stdlib.h}.
@pindex stdlib.h
@deftypefun {long int} random (void)
@standards{BSD, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@asunsafe{@asulock{}}@acunsafe{@aculock{}}}
@c Takes a lock and calls random_r with an automatic variable and the
@c global state, while holding a lock.
This function returns the next pseudo-random number in the sequence.
The value returned ranges from @code{0} to @code{2147483647}.
@strong{NB:} Temporarily this function was defined to return a
@code{int32_t} value to indicate that the return value always contains
32 bits even if @code{long int} is wider. The standard demands it
differently. Users must always be aware of the 32-bit limitation,
though.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun void srandom (unsigned int @var{seed})
@standards{BSD, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@asunsafe{@asulock{}}@acunsafe{@aculock{}}}
@c Takes a lock and calls srandom_r with an automatic variable and a
@c static buffer. There's no MT-safety issue because the static buffer
@c is internally protected by a lock, although other threads may modify
@c the set state before it is used.
The @code{srandom} function sets the state of the random number
generator based on the integer @var{seed}. If you supply a @var{seed} value
of @code{1}, this will cause @code{random} to reproduce the default set
of random numbers.
To produce a different set of pseudo-random numbers each time your
program runs, do @code{srandom (time (0))}.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun {char *} initstate (unsigned int @var{seed}, char *@var{state}, size_t @var{size})
@standards{BSD, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@asunsafe{@asulock{}}@acunsafe{@aculock{}}}
The @code{initstate} function is used to initialize the random number
generator state. The argument @var{state} is an array of @var{size}
bytes, used to hold the state information. It is initialized based on
@var{seed}. The size must be between 8 and 256 bytes, and should be a
power of two. The bigger the @var{state} array, the better.
The return value is the previous value of the state information array.
You can use this value later as an argument to @code{setstate} to
restore that state.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun {char *} setstate (char *@var{state})
@standards{BSD, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{}@asunsafe{@asulock{}}@acunsafe{@aculock{}}}
The @code{setstate} function restores the random number state
information @var{state}. The argument must have been the result of
a previous call to @var{initstate} or @var{setstate}.
The return value is the previous value of the state information array.
You can use this value later as an argument to @code{setstate} to
restore that state.
If the function fails the return value is @code{NULL}.
@end deftypefun
The four functions described so far in this section all work on a state
which is shared by all threads. The state is not directly accessible to
the user and can only be modified by these functions. This makes it
hard to deal with situations where each thread should have its own
pseudo-random number generator.
@Theglibc{} contains four additional functions which contain the
state as an explicit parameter and therefore make it possible to handle
thread-local PRNGs. Besides this there is no difference. In fact, the
four functions already discussed are implemented internally using the
following interfaces.
The @file{stdlib.h} header contains a definition of the following type:
@deftp {Data Type} {struct random_data}
@standards{GNU, stdlib.h}
Objects of type @code{struct random_data} contain the information
necessary to represent the state of the PRNG. Although a complete
definition of the type is present the type should be treated as opaque.
@end deftp
The functions modifying the state follow exactly the already described
functions.
@deftypefun int random_r (struct random_data *restrict @var{buf}, int32_t *restrict @var{result})
@standards{GNU, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{@mtsrace{:buf}}@assafe{}@acunsafe{@acucorrupt{}}}
The @code{random_r} function behaves exactly like the @code{random}
function except that it uses and modifies the state in the object
pointed to by the first parameter instead of the global state.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun int srandom_r (unsigned int @var{seed}, struct random_data *@var{buf})
@standards{GNU, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{@mtsrace{:buf}}@assafe{}@acunsafe{@acucorrupt{}}}
The @code{srandom_r} function behaves exactly like the @code{srandom}
function except that it uses and modifies the state in the object
pointed to by the second parameter instead of the global state.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun int initstate_r (unsigned int @var{seed}, char *restrict @var{statebuf}, size_t @var{statelen}, struct random_data *restrict @var{buf})
@standards{GNU, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{@mtsrace{:buf}}@assafe{}@acunsafe{@acucorrupt{}}}
The @code{initstate_r} function behaves exactly like the @code{initstate}
function except that it uses and modifies the state in the object
pointed to by the fourth parameter instead of the global state.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun int setstate_r (char *restrict @var{statebuf}, struct random_data *restrict @var{buf})
@standards{GNU, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{@mtsrace{:buf}}@assafe{}@acunsafe{@acucorrupt{}}}
The @code{setstate_r} function behaves exactly like the @code{setstate}
function except that it uses and modifies the state in the object
pointed to by the first parameter instead of the global state.
@end deftypefun
@node SVID Random
@subsection SVID Random Number Function
The C library on SVID systems contains yet another kind of random number
generator functions. They use a state of 48 bits of data. The user can
choose among a collection of functions which return the random bits
in different forms.
Generally there are two kinds of function. The first uses a state of
the random number generator which is shared among several functions and
by all threads of the process. The second requires the user to handle
the state.
All functions have in common that they use the same congruential
formula with the same constants. The formula is
@smallexample
Y = (a * X + c) mod m
@end smallexample
@noindent
where @var{X} is the state of the generator at the beginning and
@var{Y} the state at the end. @code{a} and @code{c} are constants
determining the way the generator works. By default they are
@smallexample
a = 0x5DEECE66D = 25214903917
c = 0xb = 11
@end smallexample
@noindent
but they can also be changed by the user. @code{m} is of course 2^48
since the state consists of a 48-bit array.
The prototypes for these functions are in @file{stdlib.h}.
@pindex stdlib.h
@deftypefun double drand48 (void)
@standards{SVID, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtunsafe{@mtasurace{:drand48}}@asunsafe{}@acunsafe{@acucorrupt{}}}
@c Uses of the static state buffer are not guarded by a lock (thus
@c @mtasurace:drand48), so they may be found or left at a
@c partially-updated state in case of calls from within signal handlers
@c or cancellation. None of this will break safety rules or invoke
@c undefined behavior, but it may affect randomness.
This function returns a @code{double} value in the range of @code{0.0}
to @code{1.0} (exclusive). The random bits are determined by the global
state of the random number generator in the C library.
Since the @code{double} type according to @w{IEEE 754} has a 52-bit
mantissa this means 4 bits are not initialized by the random number
generator. These are (of course) chosen to be the least significant
bits and they are initialized to @code{0}.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun double erand48 (unsigned short int @var{xsubi}[3])
@standards{SVID, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtunsafe{@mtasurace{:drand48}}@asunsafe{}@acunsafe{@acucorrupt{}}}
@c The static buffer is just initialized with default parameters, which
@c are later read to advance the state held in xsubi.
This function returns a @code{double} value in the range of @code{0.0}
to @code{1.0} (exclusive), similarly to @code{drand48}. The argument is
an array describing the state of the random number generator.
This function can be called subsequently since it updates the array to
guarantee random numbers. The array should have been initialized before
initial use to obtain reproducible results.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun {long int} lrand48 (void)
@standards{SVID, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtunsafe{@mtasurace{:drand48}}@asunsafe{}@acunsafe{@acucorrupt{}}}
The @code{lrand48} function returns an integer value in the range of
@code{0} to @code{2^31} (exclusive). Even if the size of the @code{long
int} type can take more than 32 bits, no higher numbers are returned.
The random bits are determined by the global state of the random number
generator in the C library.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun {long int} nrand48 (unsigned short int @var{xsubi}[3])
@standards{SVID, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtunsafe{@mtasurace{:drand48}}@asunsafe{}@acunsafe{@acucorrupt{}}}
This function is similar to the @code{lrand48} function in that it
returns a number in the range of @code{0} to @code{2^31} (exclusive) but
the state of the random number generator used to produce the random bits
is determined by the array provided as the parameter to the function.
The numbers in the array are updated afterwards so that subsequent calls
to this function yield different results (as is expected of a random
number generator). The array should have been initialized before the
first call to obtain reproducible results.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun {long int} mrand48 (void)
@standards{SVID, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtunsafe{@mtasurace{:drand48}}@asunsafe{}@acunsafe{@acucorrupt{}}}
The @code{mrand48} function is similar to @code{lrand48}. The only
difference is that the numbers returned are in the range @code{-2^31} to
@code{2^31} (exclusive).
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun {long int} jrand48 (unsigned short int @var{xsubi}[3])
@standards{SVID, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtunsafe{@mtasurace{:drand48}}@asunsafe{}@acunsafe{@acucorrupt{}}}
The @code{jrand48} function is similar to @code{nrand48}. The only
difference is that the numbers returned are in the range @code{-2^31} to
@code{2^31} (exclusive). For the @code{xsubi} parameter the same
requirements are necessary.
@end deftypefun
The internal state of the random number generator can be initialized in
several ways. The methods differ in the completeness of the
information provided.
@deftypefun void srand48 (long int @var{seedval})
@standards{SVID, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtunsafe{@mtasurace{:drand48}}@asunsafe{}@acunsafe{@acucorrupt{}}}
The @code{srand48} function sets the most significant 32 bits of the
internal state of the random number generator to the least
significant 32 bits of the @var{seedval} parameter. The lower 16 bits
are initialized to the value @code{0x330E}. Even if the @code{long
int} type contains more than 32 bits only the lower 32 bits are used.
Owing to this limitation, initialization of the state of this
function is not very useful. But it makes it easy to use a construct
like @code{srand48 (time (0))}.
A side-effect of this function is that the values @code{a} and @code{c}
from the internal state, which are used in the congruential formula,
are reset to the default values given above. This is of importance once
the user has called the @code{lcong48} function (see below).
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun {unsigned short int *} seed48 (unsigned short int @var{seed16v}[3])
@standards{SVID, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtunsafe{@mtasurace{:drand48}}@asunsafe{}@acunsafe{@acucorrupt{}}}
The @code{seed48} function initializes all 48 bits of the state of the
internal random number generator from the contents of the parameter
@var{seed16v}. Here the lower 16 bits of the first element of
@var{seed16v} initialize the least significant 16 bits of the internal
state, the lower 16 bits of @code{@var{seed16v}[1]} initialize the mid-order
16 bits of the state and the 16 lower bits of @code{@var{seed16v}[2]}
initialize the most significant 16 bits of the state.
Unlike @code{srand48} this function lets the user initialize all 48 bits
of the state.
The value returned by @code{seed48} is a pointer to an array containing
the values of the internal state before the change. This might be
useful to restart the random number generator at a certain state.
Otherwise the value can simply be ignored.
As for @code{srand48}, the values @code{a} and @code{c} from the
congruential formula are reset to the default values.
@end deftypefun
There is one more function to initialize the random number generator
which enables you to specify even more information by allowing you to
change the parameters in the congruential formula.
@deftypefun void lcong48 (unsigned short int @var{param}[7])
@standards{SVID, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtunsafe{@mtasurace{:drand48}}@asunsafe{}@acunsafe{@acucorrupt{}}}
The @code{lcong48} function allows the user to change the complete state
of the random number generator. Unlike @code{srand48} and
@code{seed48}, this function also changes the constants in the
congruential formula.
From the seven elements in the array @var{param} the least significant
16 bits of the entries @code{@var{param}[0]} to @code{@var{param}[2]}
determine the initial state, the least significant 16 bits of
@code{@var{param}[3]} to @code{@var{param}[5]} determine the 48 bit
constant @code{a} and @code{@var{param}[6]} determines the 16-bit value
@code{c}.
@end deftypefun
All the above functions have in common that they use the global
parameters for the congruential formula. In multi-threaded programs it
might sometimes be useful to have different parameters in different
threads. For this reason all the above functions have a counterpart
which works on a description of the random number generator in the
user-supplied buffer instead of the global state.
Please note that it is no problem if several threads use the global
state if all threads use the functions which take a pointer to an array
containing the state. The random numbers are computed following the
same loop but if the state in the array is different all threads will
obtain an individual random number generator.
The user-supplied buffer must be of type @code{struct drand48_data}.
This type should be regarded as opaque and not manipulated directly.
@deftypefun int drand48_r (struct drand48_data *@var{buffer}, double *@var{result})
@standards{GNU, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{@mtsrace{:buffer}}@assafe{}@acunsafe{@acucorrupt{}}}
This function is equivalent to the @code{drand48} function with the
difference that it does not modify the global random number generator
parameters but instead the parameters in the buffer supplied through the
pointer @var{buffer}. The random number is returned in the variable
pointed to by @var{result}.
The return value of the function indicates whether the call succeeded.
If the value is less than @code{0} an error occurred and @code{errno} is
set to indicate the problem.
This function is a GNU extension and should not be used in portable
programs.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun int erand48_r (unsigned short int @var{xsubi}[3], struct drand48_data *@var{buffer}, double *@var{result})
@standards{GNU, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{@mtsrace{:buffer}}@assafe{}@acunsafe{@acucorrupt{}}}
The @code{erand48_r} function works like @code{erand48}, but in addition
it takes an argument @var{buffer} which describes the random number
generator. The state of the random number generator is taken from the
@code{xsubi} array, the parameters for the congruential formula from the
global random number generator data. The random number is returned in
the variable pointed to by @var{result}.
The return value is non-negative if the call succeeded.
This function is a GNU extension and should not be used in portable
programs.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun int lrand48_r (struct drand48_data *@var{buffer}, long int *@var{result})
@standards{GNU, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{@mtsrace{:buffer}}@assafe{}@acunsafe{@acucorrupt{}}}
This function is similar to @code{lrand48}, but in addition it takes a
pointer to a buffer describing the state of the random number generator
just like @code{drand48}.
If the return value of the function is non-negative the variable pointed
to by @var{result} contains the result. Otherwise an error occurred.
This function is a GNU extension and should not be used in portable
programs.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun int nrand48_r (unsigned short int @var{xsubi}[3], struct drand48_data *@var{buffer}, long int *@var{result})
@standards{GNU, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{@mtsrace{:buffer}}@assafe{}@acunsafe{@acucorrupt{}}}
The @code{nrand48_r} function works like @code{nrand48} in that it
produces a random number in the range @code{0} to @code{2^31}. But instead
of using the global parameters for the congruential formula it uses the
information from the buffer pointed to by @var{buffer}. The state is
described by the values in @var{xsubi}.
If the return value is non-negative the variable pointed to by
@var{result} contains the result.
This function is a GNU extension and should not be used in portable
programs.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun int mrand48_r (struct drand48_data *@var{buffer}, long int *@var{result})
@standards{GNU, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{@mtsrace{:buffer}}@assafe{}@acunsafe{@acucorrupt{}}}
This function is similar to @code{mrand48} but like the other reentrant
functions it uses the random number generator described by the value in
the buffer pointed to by @var{buffer}.
If the return value is non-negative the variable pointed to by
@var{result} contains the result.
This function is a GNU extension and should not be used in portable
programs.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun int jrand48_r (unsigned short int @var{xsubi}[3], struct drand48_data *@var{buffer}, long int *@var{result})
@standards{GNU, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{@mtsrace{:buffer}}@assafe{}@acunsafe{@acucorrupt{}}}
The @code{jrand48_r} function is similar to @code{jrand48}. Like the
other reentrant functions of this function family it uses the
congruential formula parameters from the buffer pointed to by
@var{buffer}.
If the return value is non-negative the variable pointed to by
@var{result} contains the result.
This function is a GNU extension and should not be used in portable
programs.
@end deftypefun
Before any of the above functions are used the buffer of type
@code{struct drand48_data} should be initialized. The easiest way to do
this is to fill the whole buffer with null bytes, e.g. by
@smallexample
memset (buffer, '\0', sizeof (struct drand48_data));
@end smallexample
@noindent
Using any of the reentrant functions of this family now will
automatically initialize the random number generator to the default
values for the state and the parameters of the congruential formula.
The other possibility is to use any of the functions which explicitly
initialize the buffer. Though it might be obvious how to initialize the
buffer from looking at the parameter to the function, it is highly
recommended to use these functions since the result might not always be
what you expect.
@deftypefun int srand48_r (long int @var{seedval}, struct drand48_data *@var{buffer})
@standards{GNU, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{@mtsrace{:buffer}}@assafe{}@acunsafe{@acucorrupt{}}}
The description of the random number generator represented by the
information in @var{buffer} is initialized similarly to what the function
@code{srand48} does. The state is initialized from the parameter
@var{seedval} and the parameters for the congruential formula are
initialized to their default values.
If the return value is non-negative the function call succeeded.
This function is a GNU extension and should not be used in portable
programs.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun int seed48_r (unsigned short int @var{seed16v}[3], struct drand48_data *@var{buffer})
@standards{GNU, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{@mtsrace{:buffer}}@assafe{}@acunsafe{@acucorrupt{}}}
This function is similar to @code{srand48_r} but like @code{seed48} it
initializes all 48 bits of the state from the parameter @var{seed16v}.
If the return value is non-negative the function call succeeded. It
does not return a pointer to the previous state of the random number
generator like the @code{seed48} function does. If the user wants to
preserve the state for a later re-run s/he can copy the whole buffer
pointed to by @var{buffer}.
This function is a GNU extension and should not be used in portable
programs.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun int lcong48_r (unsigned short int @var{param}[7], struct drand48_data *@var{buffer})
@standards{GNU, stdlib.h}
@safety{@prelim{}@mtsafe{@mtsrace{:buffer}}@assafe{}@acunsafe{@acucorrupt{}}}
This function initializes all aspects of the random number generator
described in @var{buffer} with the data in @var{param}. Here it is
especially true that the function does more than just copying the
contents of @var{param} and @var{buffer}. More work is required and
therefore it is important to use this function rather than initializing
the random number generator directly.
If the return value is non-negative the function call succeeded.
This function is a GNU extension and should not be used in portable
programs.
@end deftypefun
@node High Quality Random
@subsection High Quality Random Number Functions
This section describes the random number functions provided as a GNU
extension, based on OpenBSD interfaces.
@Theglibc{} uses kernel entropy obtained either through @code{getrandom}
or by reading @file{/dev/urandom} to seed.
These functions provide higher random quality than ISO, BSD, and SVID
functions, and may be used in cryptographic contexts.
The prototypes for these functions are in @file{stdlib.h}.
@pindex stdlib.h
@deftypefun uint32_t arc4random (void)
@standards{BSD, stdlib.h}
@safety{@mtsafe{}@asunsafe{@asucorrupt{}}@acsafe{}}
This function returns a single 32-bit value in the range of @code{0} to
@code{2^32−1} (inclusive), which is twice the range of @code{rand} and
@code{random}.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun void arc4random_buf (void *@var{buffer}, size_t @var{length})
@standards{BSD, stdlib.h}
@safety{@mtsafe{}@asunsafe{@asucorrupt{}}@acsafe{}}
This function fills the region @var{buffer} of length @var{length} bytes
with random data.
@end deftypefun
@deftypefun uint32_t arc4random_uniform (uint32_t @var{upper_bound})
@standards{BSD, stdlib.h}
@safety{@mtsafe{}@asunsafe{@asucorrupt{}}@acsafe{}}
This function returns a single 32-bit value, uniformly distributed but
less than the @var{upper_bound}. It avoids the @w{modulo bias} when the
upper bound is not a power of two.
@end deftypefun
@node FP Function Optimizations
@section Is Fast Code or Small Code preferred?
@cindex Optimization
If an application uses many floating point functions it is often the case
that the cost of the function calls themselves is not negligible.
Modern processors can often execute the operations themselves
very fast, but the function call disrupts the instruction pipeline.
For this reason @theglibc{} provides optimizations for many of the
frequently-used math functions. When GNU CC is used and the user
activates the optimizer, several new inline functions and macros are
defined. These new functions and macros have the same names as the
library functions and so are used instead of the latter. In the case of
inline functions the compiler will decide whether it is reasonable to
use them, and this decision is usually correct.
This means that no calls to the library functions may be necessary, and
can increase the speed of generated code significantly. The drawback is
that code size will increase, and the increase is not always negligible.
There are two kinds of inline functions: those that give the same result
as the library functions and others that might not set @code{errno} and
might have a reduced precision and/or argument range in comparison with
the library functions. The latter inline functions are only available
if the flag @code{-ffast-math} is given to GNU CC.
Not all hardware implements the entire @w{IEEE 754} standard, and even
if it does there may be a substantial performance penalty for using some
of its features. For example, enabling traps on some processors forces
the FPU to run un-pipelined, which can more than double calculation time.
@c ***Add explanation of -lieee, -mieee.
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