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1998-07-29 Mark Kettenis <kettenis@phys.uva.nl> * sysdeps/mach/hurd/dl-sysdep.c (__lseek): New function. (__getpid): New function. (abort): New function. * nis/nis_cache2_xdr.c: Removed.
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959 lines
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<HEAD>
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<TITLE>LinuxThreads Frequently Asked Questions</TITLE>
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</HEAD>
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<BODY>
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<H1 ALIGN=center>LinuxThreads Frequently Asked Questions <BR>
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(with answers)</H1>
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<H2 ALIGN=center>[For LinuxThreads version 0.8]</H2>
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<HR><P>
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<A HREF="#A">A. The big picture</A><BR>
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<A HREF="#B">B. Getting more information</A><BR>
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<A HREF="#C">C. Issues related to the C library</A><BR>
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<A HREF="#D">D. Problems, weird behaviors, potential bugs</A><BR>
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<A HREF="#E">E. Missing functions, wrong types, etc</A><BR>
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<A HREF="#F">F. C++ issues</A><BR>
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<A HREF="#G">G. Debugging LinuxThreads programs</A><BR>
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<A HREF="#H">H. Compiling multithreaded code; errno madness</A><BR>
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<A HREF="#I">I. X-Windows and other libraries</A><BR>
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<A HREF="#J">J. Signals and threads</A><BR>
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<A HREF="#K">K. Internals of LinuxThreads</A><P>
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<HR>
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<P>
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<H2><A NAME="A">A. The big picture</A></H2>
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<H4><A NAME="A.1">A.1: What is LinuxThreads?</A></H4>
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LinuxThreads is a Linux library for multi-threaded programming.
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It implements the Posix 1003.1c API (Application Programming
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Interface) for threads. It runs on any Linux system with kernel 2.0.0
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or more recent, and a suitable C library (see section <A HREF="C">C</A>).
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<P>
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<H4><A NAME="A.2">A.2: What are threads?</A></H4>
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A thread is a sequential flow of control through a program.
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Multi-threaded programming is, thus, a form of parallel programming
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where several threads of control are executing concurrently in the
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program. All threads execute in the same memory space, and can
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therefore work concurrently on shared data.<P>
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Multi-threaded programming differs from Unix-style multi-processing in
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that all threads share the same memory space (and a few other system
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resources, such as file descriptors), instead of running in their own
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memory space as is the case with Unix processes.<P>
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Threads are useful for two reasons. First, they allow a program to
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exploit multi-processor machines: the threads can run in parallel on
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several processors, allowing a single program to divide its work
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between several processors, thus running faster than a single-threaded
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program, which runs on only one processor at a time. Second, some
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programs are best expressed as several threads of control that
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communicate together, rather than as one big monolithic sequential
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program. Examples include server programs, overlapping asynchronous
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I/O, and graphical user interfaces.<P>
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<H4><A NAME="A.3">A.3: What is POSIX 1003.1c?</A></H4>
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It's an API for multi-threaded programming standardized by IEEE as
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part of the POSIX standards. Most Unix vendors have endorsed the
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POSIX 1003.1c standard. Implementations of the 1003.1c API are
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already available under Sun Solaris 2.5, Digital Unix 4.0,
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Silicon Graphics IRIX 6, and should soon be available from other
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vendors such as IBM and HP. More generally, the 1003.1c API is
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replacing relatively quickly the proprietary threads library that were
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developed previously under Unix, such as Mach cthreads, Solaris
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threads, and IRIX sprocs. Thus, multithreaded programs using the
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1003.1c API are likely to run unchanged on a wide variety of Unix
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platforms.<P>
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<H4><A NAME="A.4">A.4: What is the status of LinuxThreads?</A></H4>
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In short, it's not completely finished (hence the version numbers in
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0.<I>x</I>), but what is done is pretty mature.
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LinuxThreads implements almost all of Posix 1003.1c, as well as a few
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extensions. The only part of LinuxThreads that does not conform yet
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to Posix is signal handling (see section <A HREF="#J">J</A>). Apart
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from the signal stuff, all the Posix 1003.1c base functionality is
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provided and conforms to the standard (to the best of my knowledge).
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The signal stuff is hard to get right, at least without special kernel
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support, and while I'm definitely looking at ways to implement the
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Posix behavior for signals, this might take a long time before it's
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completed.<P>
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<H4><A NAME="A.5">A.5: How stable is LinuxThreads?</A></H4>
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The basic functionality (thread creation and termination, mutexes,
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conditions, semaphores) is very stable. Several industrial-strength
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programs, such as the AOL multithreaded Web server, use LinuxThreads
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and seem quite happy about it. There are some rough edges in
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the LinuxThreads / C library interface, at least with libc 5, but most
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of these rough edges are fixed in glibc 2, which should soon become
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the standard C library for Linux distributions (see section <A
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HREF="#C">C</A>). <P>
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<HR>
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<P>
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<H2><A NAME="B">B. Getting more information</A></H2>
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<H4><A NAME="B.1">B.1: What are good books and other sources of
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information on POSIX threads?</A></H4>
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The FAQ for comp.programming.threads lists several books:
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<A HREF="http://www.serpentine.com/~bos/threads-faq/">http://www.serpentine.com/~bos/threads-faq/</A>.<P>
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There are also some online tutorials. Follow the links from the
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LinuxThreads web page:
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<A HREF="http://pauillac.inria.fr/~xleroy/linuxthreads">http://pauillac.inria.fr/~xleroy/linuxthreads</A>.<P>
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<H4><A NAME="B.2">B.2: I'd like to be informed of future developments on
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LinuxThreads. Is there a mailing list for this purpose?</A></H4>
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I post LinuxThreads-related announcements on the newsgroup
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<A HREF="news:comp.os.linux.announce">comp.os.linux.announce</A>,
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and also on the mailing list
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<code>linux-threads@magenet.com</code>.
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You can subscribe to the latter by writing
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<A HREF="mailto:majordomo@magenet.com">majordomo@magenet.com</A>.<P>
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<H4><A NAME="B.3">B.3: What are good places for discussing
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LinuxThreads?</A></H4>
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For questions about programming with POSIX threads in general, use
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the newsgroup
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<A HREF="news:comp.programming.threads">comp.programming.threads</A>.
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Be sure you read the
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<A HREF="http://www.serpentine.com/~bos/threads-faq/">FAQ</A>
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for this group before you post.<P>
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For Linux-specific questions, use
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<A
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HREF="news:comp.os.linux.development.apps">comp.os.linux.development.apps</A>
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and <A
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HREF="news:comp.os.linux.development.kernel">comp.os.linux.development.kernel</A>.
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The latter is especially appropriate for questions relative to the
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interface between the kernel and LinuxThreads.<P>
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Very specific LinuxThreads questions, and in particular everything
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that looks like a potential bug in LinuxThreads, should be mailed
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directly to me (<code>Xavier.Leroy@inria.fr</code>). Before mailing
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me, make sure that your question is not answered in this FAQ.<P>
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<H4><A NAME="B.4">B.4: I'd like to read the POSIX 1003.1c standard. Is
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it available online?</A></H4>
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Unfortunately, no. POSIX standards are copyrighted by IEEE, and
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IEEE does not distribute them freely. You can buy paper copies from
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IEEE, but the price is fairly high ($120 or so). If you disagree with
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this policy and you're an IEEE member, be sure to let them know.<P>
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On the other hand, you probably don't want to read the standard. It's
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very hard to read, written in standard-ese, and targeted to
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implementors who already know threads inside-out. A good book on
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POSIX threads provides the same information in a much more readable form.
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I can personally recommend Dave Butenhof's book, <CITE>Programming
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with POSIX threads</CITE> (Addison-Wesley). Butenhof was part of the
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POSIX committee and also designed the Digital Unix implementations of
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POSIX threads, and it shows.<P>
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Another good source of information is the X/Open Group Single Unix
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specification which is available both
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<A HREF="http://www.rdg.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/7908799/index.html">on-line</A>
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and as a
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<A HREF="http://www.UNIX-systems.org/gosolo2/">book and CD/ROM</A>.
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That specification includes pretty much all the POSIX standards,
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including 1003.1c, with some extensions and clarifications.<P>
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<HR>
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<P>
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<H2><A NAME="C">C. Issues related to the C library</A></H2>
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<H4><A NAME="C.1">C.1: Which version of the C library should I use
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with LinuxThreads?</A></H4>
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The best choice by far is glibc 2, a.k.a. libc 6. It offers very good
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support for multi-threading, and LinuxThreads has been closely
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integrated with glibc 2. The glibc 2 distribution contains the
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sources of a specially adapted version of LinuxThreads.<P>
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glibc 2 comes preinstalled as the default C library on several Linux
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distributions, such as RedHat 5.0 and 5.1, and recent beta versions of
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Debian. Those distributions include the version of LinuxThreads matching
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glibc 2.<P>
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<H4><A NAME="C.2">C.2: My system has libc 5 preinstalled, not glibc
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2. Can I still use LinuxThreads?</H4>
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Yes, but you're likely to run into some problems, as libc 5 only
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offers minimal support for threads and contains some bugs that affect
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multithreaded programs. <P>
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The versions of libc 5 that work best with LinuxThreads are
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libc 5.2.18 on the one hand, and libc 5.4.12 or later on the other hand.
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Avoid 5.3.12 and 5.4.7: these have problems with the per-thread errno
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variable. <P>
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Unfortunately, many popular Linux distributions (e.g. RedHat 4.2) come
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with libc 5.3.12 preinstalled -- the one that does not work with
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LinuxThreads. Fortunately, you can often find pre-packaged binaries
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of more recent versions of libc for these distributions. In the case
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of RedHat 4, there is a RPM package for libc-5.4 in the "contrib"
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area of RedHat FTP sites.
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<P>
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<H4><A NAME="C.3">C.3: So, should I switch to glibc 2, or stay with a
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recent libc 5?</A></H4>
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I'd recommend you switch to glibc 2. Even for single-threaded
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programs, glibc 2 is more solid and more standard-conformant than libc
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5. And the shortcomings of libc 5 almost preclude any serious
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multi-threaded programming.<P>
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Switching an already installed
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system from libc 5 to glibc 2 is not completely straightforward.
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See the <A HREF="http://sunsite.unc.edu/LDP/HOWTO/Glibc2-HOWTO.html">Glibc2
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HOWTO</A> for more information. Much easier is (re-)installing a
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Linux distribution based on glibc 2, such as RedHat 5.1.<P>
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<H4><A NAME="C.4">C.4: Where can I find glibc 2 and the version of
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LinuxThreads that goes with it?</A></H4>
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On <code>prep.ai.mit.edu</code> and its many, many mirrors around the world.
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See <A
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HREF="http://www.gnu.org/order/ftp.html">http://www.gnu.org/order/ftp.html</A>
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for a list of mirrors.<P>
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<H4><A NAME="C.5">C.5: Where can I find libc 5 and the version of
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LinuxThreads that goes with it?</A></H4>
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For libc 5, see <A HREF="ftp://sunsite.unc.edu/pub/Linux/devel/GCC/"><code>ftp://sunsite.unc.edu/pub/Linux/devel/GCC/</code></A>.<P>
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For the libc 5 version of LinuxThreads, see
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<A HREF="ftp://ftp.inria.fr/INRIA/Projects/cristal/Xavier.Leroy/linuxthreads/">ftp://ftp.inria.fr/INRIA/Projects/cristal/Xavier.Leroy/linuxthreads/</A>.<P>
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<HR>
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<P>
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<H2><A NAME="D">D. Problems, weird behaviors, potential bugs</A></H2>
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<H4><A NAME="D.1">D.1: When I compile LinuxThreads, I run into problems in
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file <code>libc_r/dirent.c</code></A></H4>
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You probably mean:
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<PRE>
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libc_r/dirent.c:94: structure has no member named `dd_lock'
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</PRE>
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I haven't actually seen this problem, but several users reported it.
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My understanding is that something is wrong in the include files of
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your Linux installation (<code>/usr/include/*</code>). Make sure
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you're using a supported version of the libc 5 library. (See question <A
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HREF="#C.2">C.2</A>).<P>
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<H4><A NAME="D.2">D.2: When I compile LinuxThreads, I run into problems with
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<CODE>/usr/include/sched.h</CODE>: there are several occurrences of
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<CODE>_p</CODE> that the C compiler does not understand</A></H4>
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Yes, <CODE>/usr/include/sched.h</CODE> that comes with libc 5.3.12 is broken.
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Replace it with the <code>sched.h</code> file contained in the
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LinuxThreads distribution. But really you should not be using libc
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5.3.12 with LinuxThreads! (See question <A HREF="#C.2">C.1</A>.)<P>
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<H4><A NAME="D.3">D.3: My program does <CODE>fdopen()</CODE> on a file
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descriptor opened on a pipe. When I link it with LinuxThreads,
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<CODE>fdopen()</CODE> always returns NULL!</A></H4>
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You're using one of the buggy versions of libc (5.3.12, 5.4.7., etc).
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See question <A HREF="#C.1">C.1</A> above.<P>
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<H4><A NAME="D.4">D.4: My program crashes the first time it calls
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<CODE>pthread_create()</CODE> !</A></H4>
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You wouldn't be using glibc 2.0, by any chance? That's a known bug
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with glibc 2.0. Please upgrade to 2.0.1 or later.<P>
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<H4><A NAME="D.5">D.5: When I'm running a program that creates N
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threads, <code>top</code> or <code>ps</code>
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display N+2 processes that are running my program. What do all these
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processes correspond to?</A></H4>
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Due to the general "one process per thread" model, there's one process
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for the initial thread and N processes for the threads it created
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using <CODE>pthread_create</CODE>. That leaves one process
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unaccounted for. That extra process corresponds to the "thread
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manager" thread, a thread created internally by LinuxThreads to handle
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thread creation and thread termination. This extra thread is asleep
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most of the time.
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<H4><A NAME="D.6">D.6: Scheduling seems to be very unfair when there
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is strong contention on a mutex: instead of giving the mutex to each
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thread in turn, it seems that it's almost always the same thread that
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gets the mutex. Isn't this completely broken behavior?</A></H4>
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That behavior has mostly disappeared in recent releases of
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LinuxThreads (version 0.8 and up). It was fairly common in older
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releases, though.
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What happens in LinuxThreads 0.7 and before is the following: when a
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thread unlocks a mutex, all other threads that were waiting on the
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mutex are sent a signal which makes them runnable. However, the
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kernel scheduler may or may not restart them immediately. If the
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thread that unlocked the mutex tries to lock it again immediately
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afterwards, it is likely that it will succeed, because the threads
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haven't yet restarted. This results in an apparently very unfair
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behavior, when the same thread repeatedly locks and unlocks the mutex,
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while other threads can't lock the mutex.<P>
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In LinuxThreads 0.8 and up, <code>pthread_unlock</code> restarts only
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one waiting thread, and pre-assign the mutex to that thread. Hence,
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if the thread that unlocked the mutex tries to lock it again
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immediately, it will block until other waiting threads have had a
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chance to lock and unlock the mutex. This results in much fairer
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scheduling.<P>
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Notice however that even the old "unfair" behavior is perfectly
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acceptable with respect to the POSIX standard: for the default
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scheduling policy, POSIX makes no guarantees of fairness, such as "the
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thread waiting for the mutex for the longest time always acquires it
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first". Properly written multithreaded code avoids that kind of heavy
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contention on mutexes, and does not run into fairness problems. If
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you need scheduling guarantees, you should consider using the
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real-time scheduling policies <code>SCHED_RR</code> and
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<code>SCHED_FIFO</code>, which have precisely defined scheduling
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behaviors. <P>
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<H4><A NAME="D.7">D.7: I have a simple test program with two threads
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that do nothing but <CODE>printf()</CODE> in tight loops, and from the
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printout it seems that only one thread is running, the other doesn't
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print anything!</A></H4>
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Again, this behavior is characteristic of old releases of LinuxThreads
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(0.7 and before); more recent versions (0.8 and up) should not exhibit
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this behavior.<P>
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The reason for this behavior is explained in
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question <A HREF="#D.6">D.6</A> above: <CODE>printf()</CODE> performs
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locking on <CODE>stdout</CODE>, and thus your two threads contend very
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heavily for the mutex associated with <CODE>stdout</CODE>. But if you
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do some real work between two calls to <CODE>printf()</CODE>, you'll
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see that scheduling becomes much smoother.<P>
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<H4><A NAME="D.8">D.8: I've looked at <code><pthread.h></code>
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and there seems to be a gross error in the <code>pthread_cleanup_push</code>
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macro: it opens a block with <code>{</code> but does not close it!
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Surely you forgot a <code>}</code> at the end of the macro, right?
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</A></H4>
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Nope. That's the way it should be. The closing brace is provided by
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the <code>pthread_cleanup_pop</code> macro. The POSIX standard
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requires <code>pthread_cleanup_push</code> and
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<code>pthread_cleanup_pop</code> to be used in matching pairs, at the
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same level of brace nesting. This allows
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<code>pthread_cleanup_push</code> to open a block in order to
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stack-allocate some data structure, and
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<code>pthread_cleanup_pop</code> to close that block. It's ugly, but
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it's the standard way of implementing cleanup handlers.<P>
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<HR>
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<P>
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<H2><A NAME="E">E. Missing functions, wrong types, etc</A></H2>
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<H4><A NAME="E.1">E.1: Where is <CODE>pthread_yield()</CODE> ? How
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comes LinuxThreads does not implement it?</A></H4>
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Because it's not part of the (final) POSIX 1003.1c standard.
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Several drafts of the standard contained <CODE>pthread_yield()</CODE>,
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but then the POSIX guys discovered it was redundant with
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<CODE>sched_yield()</CODE> and dropped it. So, just use
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<CODE>sched_yield()</CODE> instead.
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<H4><A NAME="E.2">E.2: I've found some type errors in
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<code><pthread.h></code>.
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For instance, the second argument to <CODE>pthread_create()</CODE>
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should be a <CODE>pthread_attr_t</CODE>, not a
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<CODE>pthread_attr_t *</CODE>. Also, didn't you forget to declare
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<CODE>pthread_attr_default</CODE>?</A></H4>
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No, I didn't. What you're describing is draft 4 of the POSIX
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standard, which is used in OSF DCE threads. LinuxThreads conforms to the
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final standard. Even though the functions have the same names as in
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draft 4 and DCE, their calling conventions are slightly different. In
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particular, attributes are passed by reference, not by value, and
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default attributes are denoted by the NULL pointer. Since draft 4/DCE
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will eventually disappear, you'd better port your program to use the
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standard interface.<P>
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<H4><A NAME="E.3">E.3: I'm porting an application from Solaris and I
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have to rename all thread functions from <code>thr_blah</code> to
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<CODE>pthread_blah</CODE>. This is very annoying. Why did you change
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all the function names?</A></H4>
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|
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POSIX did it. The <code>thr_*</code> functions correspond to Solaris
|
|
threads, an older thread interface that you'll find only under
|
|
Solaris. The <CODE>pthread_*</CODE> functions correspond to POSIX
|
|
threads, an international standard available for many, many platforms.
|
|
Even Solaris 2.5 and later support the POSIX threads interface. So,
|
|
do yourself a favor and rewrite your code to use POSIX threads: this
|
|
way, it will run unchanged under Linux, Solaris, and quite a lot of
|
|
other platforms.<P>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="E.4">E.4: How can I suspend and resume a thread from
|
|
another thread? Solaris has the <CODE>thr_suspend()</CODE> and
|
|
<CODE>thr_resume()</CODE> functions to do that; why don't you?</A></H4>
|
|
|
|
The POSIX standard provides <B>no</B> mechanism by which a thread A can
|
|
suspend the execution of another thread B, without cooperation from B.
|
|
The only way to implement a suspend/restart mechanism is to have B
|
|
check periodically some global variable for a suspend request
|
|
and then suspend itself on a condition variable, which another thread
|
|
can signal later to restart B.<P>
|
|
|
|
Notice that <CODE>thr_suspend()</CODE> is inherently dangerous and
|
|
prone to race conditions. For one thing, there is no control on where
|
|
the target thread stops: it can very well be stopped in the middle of
|
|
a critical section, while holding mutexes. Also, there is no
|
|
guarantee on when the target thread will actually stop. For these
|
|
reasons, you'd be much better off using mutexes and conditions
|
|
instead. The only situations that really require the ability to
|
|
suspend a thread are debuggers and some kind of garbage collectors.<P>
|
|
|
|
If you really must suspend a thread in LinuxThreads, you can send it a
|
|
<CODE>SIGSTOP</CODE> signal with <CODE>pthread_kill</CODE>. Send
|
|
<CODE>SIGCONT</CODE> for restarting it.
|
|
Beware, this is specific to LinuxThreads and entirely non-portable.
|
|
Indeed, a truly conforming POSIX threads implementation will stop all
|
|
threads when one thread receives the <CODE>SIGSTOP</CODE> signal!
|
|
One day, LinuxThreads will implement that behavior, and the
|
|
non-portable hack with <CODE>SIGSTOP</CODE> won't work anymore.<P>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="E.5">E.5: Does LinuxThreads implement
|
|
<CODE>pthread_attr_setstacksize()</CODE> and
|
|
<CODE>pthread_attr_setstackaddr()</CODE>?</A></H4>
|
|
|
|
These optional functions are provided in recent versions of
|
|
LinuxThreads (0.8 and up). Earlier releases did not provide these
|
|
optional components of the POSIX standard.<P>
|
|
|
|
Even if <CODE>pthread_attr_setstacksize()</CODE> and
|
|
<CODE>pthread_attr_setstackaddr()</CODE> are now provided, we still
|
|
recommend that you do not use them unless you really have strong
|
|
reasons for doing so. The default stack allocation strategy for
|
|
LinuxThreads is nearly optimal: stacks start small (4k) and
|
|
automatically grow on demand to a fairly large limit (2M).
|
|
Moreover, there is no portable way to estimate the stack requirements
|
|
of a thread, so setting the stack size yourself makes your program
|
|
less reliable and non-portable.<P>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="E.6">E.6: LinuxThreads does not support the
|
|
<CODE>PTHREAD_SCOPE_PROCESS</CODE> value of the "contentionscope"
|
|
attribute. Why? </A></H4>
|
|
|
|
With a "one-to-one" model, as in LinuxThreads (one kernel execution
|
|
context per thread), there is only one scheduler for all processes and
|
|
all threads on the system. So, there is no way to obtain the behavior of
|
|
<CODE>PTHREAD_SCOPE_PROCESS</CODE>.
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="E.7">E.7: LinuxThreads does not implement process-shared
|
|
mutexes, conditions, and semaphores. Why?</A></H4>
|
|
|
|
This is another optional component of the POSIX standard. Portable
|
|
applications should test <CODE>_POSIX_THREAD_PROCESS_SHARED</CODE>
|
|
before using this facility.
|
|
<P>
|
|
The goal of this extension is to allow different processes (with
|
|
different address spaces) to synchronize through mutexes, conditions
|
|
or semaphores allocated in shared memory (either SVR4 shared memory
|
|
segments or <CODE>mmap()</CODE>ed files).
|
|
<P>
|
|
The reason why this does not work in LinuxThreads is that mutexes,
|
|
conditions, and semaphores are not self-contained: their waiting
|
|
queues contain pointers to linked lists of thread descriptors, and
|
|
these pointers are meaningful only in one address space.
|
|
<P>
|
|
Matt Messier and I spent a significant amount of time trying to design a
|
|
suitable mechanism for sharing waiting queues between processes. We
|
|
came up with several solutions that combined two of the following
|
|
three desirable features, but none that combines all three:
|
|
<UL>
|
|
<LI>allow sharing between processes having different UIDs
|
|
<LI>supports cancellation
|
|
<LI>supports <CODE>pthread_cond_timedwait</CODE>
|
|
</UL>
|
|
We concluded that kernel support is required to share mutexes,
|
|
conditions and semaphores between processes. That's one place where
|
|
Linus Torvalds's intuition that "all we need in the kernel is
|
|
<CODE>clone()</CODE>" fails.
|
|
<P>
|
|
Until suitable kernel support is available, you'd better use
|
|
traditional interprocess communications to synchronize different
|
|
processes: System V semaphores and message queues, or pipes, or sockets.
|
|
<P>
|
|
|
|
<HR>
|
|
<P>
|
|
|
|
<H2><A NAME="F">F. C++ issues</A></H2>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="F.1">F.1: Are there C++ wrappers for LinuxThreads?</A></H4>
|
|
|
|
Douglas Schmidt's ACE library contains, among a lot of other
|
|
things, C++ wrappers for LinuxThreads and quite a number of other
|
|
thread libraries. Check out
|
|
<A HREF="http://www.cs.wustl.edu/~schmidt/ACE.html">http://www.cs.wustl.edu/~schmidt/ACE.html</A><P>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="F.2">F.2: I'm trying to use LinuxThreads from a C++
|
|
program, and the compiler complains about the third argument to
|
|
<CODE>pthread_create()</CODE> !</A></H4>
|
|
|
|
You're probably trying to pass a class member function or some
|
|
other C++ thing as third argument to <CODE>pthread_create()</CODE>.
|
|
Recall that <CODE>pthread_create()</CODE> is a C function, and it must
|
|
be passed a C function as third argument.<P>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="F.3">F.3: I'm trying to use LinuxThreads in conjunction
|
|
with libg++, and I'm having all sorts of trouble.</A></H4>
|
|
|
|
From what I understand, thread support in libg++ is completely broken,
|
|
especially with respect to locking of iostreams. H.J.Lu wrote:
|
|
<BLOCKQUOTE>
|
|
If you want to use thread, I can only suggest egcs and glibc. You
|
|
can find egcs at
|
|
<A HREF="http://www.cygnus.com/egcs">http://www.cygnus.com/egcs</A>.
|
|
egcs has libsdtc++, which is MT safe under glibc 2. If you really
|
|
want to use the libg++, I have a libg++ add-on for egcs.
|
|
</BLOCKQUOTE>
|
|
<HR>
|
|
<P>
|
|
|
|
<H2><A NAME="G">G. Debugging LinuxThreads programs</A></H2>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="G.1">G.1: Can I debug LinuxThreads program using gdb?</A></H4>
|
|
|
|
Yes, but not with the stock gdb 4.17. You need a specially patched
|
|
version of gdb 4.17 developed by Eric Paire and colleages at The Open
|
|
Group, Grenoble. The patches against gdb 4.17 are available at
|
|
<A HREF="http://www.gr.opengroup.org/java/jdk/linux/debug.htm"><code>http://www.gr.opengroup.org/java/jdk/linux/debug.htm</code></A>.
|
|
Precompiled binaries of the patched gdb are available in RedHat's RPM
|
|
format at <A HREF="http://odin.appliedtheory.com/"><code>http://odin.appliedtheory.com/</code></A>.
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="G.2">G.2: Does it work with post-mortem debugging?</A></H4>
|
|
|
|
Not very well. Generally, the core file does not correspond to the
|
|
thread that crashed. The reason is that the kernel will not dump core
|
|
for a process that shares its memory with other processes, such as the
|
|
other threads of your program. So, the thread that crashes silently
|
|
disappears without generating a core file. Then, all other threads of
|
|
your program die on the same signal that killed the crashing thread.
|
|
(This is required behavior according to the POSIX standard.) The last
|
|
one that dies is no longer sharing its memory with anyone else, so the
|
|
kernel generates a core file for that thread. Unfortunately, that's
|
|
not the thread you are interested in.
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="G.3">G.3: Any other ways to debug multithreaded programs, then?</A></H4>
|
|
|
|
Assertions and <CODE>printf()</CODE> are your best friends. Try to debug
|
|
sequential parts in a single-threaded program first. Then, put
|
|
<CODE>printf()</CODE> statements all over the place to get execution traces.
|
|
Also, check invariants often with the <CODE>assert()</CODE> macro. In truth,
|
|
there is no other effective way (save for a full formal proof of your
|
|
program) to track down concurrency bugs. Debuggers are not really
|
|
effective for subtle concurrency problems, because they disrupt
|
|
program execution too much.<P>
|
|
|
|
<HR>
|
|
<P>
|
|
|
|
<H2><A NAME="H">H. Compiling multithreaded code; errno madness</A></H2>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="H.1">H.1: You say all multithreaded code must be compiled
|
|
with <CODE>_REENTRANT</CODE> defined. What difference does it make?</A></H4>
|
|
|
|
It affects include files in three ways:
|
|
<UL>
|
|
<LI> The include files define prototypes for the reentrant variants of
|
|
some of the standard library functions,
|
|
e.g. <CODE>gethostbyname_r()</CODE> as a reentrant equivalent to
|
|
<CODE>gethostbyname()</CODE>.<P>
|
|
|
|
<LI> If <CODE>_REENTRANT</CODE> is defined, some
|
|
<code><stdio.h></code> functions are no longer defined as macros,
|
|
e.g. <CODE>getc()</CODE> and <CODE>putc()</CODE>. In a multithreaded
|
|
program, stdio functions require additional locking, which the macros
|
|
don't perform, so we must call functions instead.<P>
|
|
|
|
<LI> More importantly, <code><errno.h></code> redefines errno when
|
|
<CODE>_REENTRANT</CODE> is
|
|
defined, so that errno refers to the thread-specific errno location
|
|
rather than the global errno variable. This is achieved by the
|
|
following <code>#define</code> in <code><errno.h></code>:
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
#define errno (*(__errno_location()))
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
which causes each reference to errno to call the
|
|
<CODE>__errno_location()</CODE> function for obtaining the location
|
|
where error codes are stored. libc provides a default definition of
|
|
<CODE>__errno_location()</CODE> that always returns
|
|
<code>&errno</code> (the address of the global errno variable). Thus,
|
|
for programs not linked with LinuxThreads, defining
|
|
<CODE>_REENTRANT</CODE> makes no difference w.r.t. errno processing.
|
|
But LinuxThreads redefines <CODE>__errno_location()</CODE> to return a
|
|
location in the thread descriptor reserved for holding the current
|
|
value of errno for the calling thread. Thus, each thread operates on
|
|
a different errno location.
|
|
</UL>
|
|
<P>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="H.2">H.2: Why is it so important that each thread has its
|
|
own errno variable? </A></H4>
|
|
|
|
If all threads were to store error codes in the same, global errno
|
|
variable, then the value of errno after a system call or library
|
|
function returns would be unpredictable: between the time a system
|
|
call stores its error code in the global errno and your code inspects
|
|
errno to see which error occurred, another thread might have stored
|
|
another error code in the same errno location. <P>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="H.3">H.3: What happens if I link LinuxThreads with code
|
|
not compiled with <CODE>-D_REENTRANT</CODE>?</A></H4>
|
|
|
|
Lots of trouble. If the code uses <CODE>getc()</CODE> or
|
|
<CODE>putc()</CODE>, it will perform I/O without proper interlocking
|
|
of the stdio buffers; this can cause lost output, duplicate output, or
|
|
just crash other stdio functions. If the code consults errno, it will
|
|
get back the wrong error code. The following code fragment is a
|
|
typical example:
|
|
<PRE>
|
|
do {
|
|
r = read(fd, buf, n);
|
|
if (r == -1) {
|
|
if (errno == EINTR) /* an error we can handle */
|
|
continue;
|
|
else { /* other errors are fatal */
|
|
perror("read failed");
|
|
exit(100);
|
|
}
|
|
}
|
|
} while (...);
|
|
</PRE>
|
|
Assume this code is not compiled with <CODE>-D_REENTRANT</CODE>, and
|
|
linked with LinuxThreads. At run-time, <CODE>read()</CODE> is
|
|
interrupted. Since the C library was compiled with
|
|
<CODE>-D_REENTRANT</CODE>, <CODE>read()</CODE> stores its error code
|
|
in the location pointed to by <CODE>__errno_location()</CODE>, which
|
|
is the thread-local errno variable. Then, the code above sees that
|
|
<CODE>read()</CODE> returns -1 and looks up errno. Since
|
|
<CODE>_REENTRANT</CODE> is not defined, the reference to errno
|
|
accesses the global errno variable, which is most likely 0. Hence the
|
|
code concludes that it cannot handle the error and stops.<P>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="H.4">H.4: With LinuxThreads, I can no longer use the signals
|
|
<code>SIGUSR1</code> and <code>SIGUSR2</code> in my programs! Why? </A></H4>
|
|
|
|
The short answer is: because the Linux kernel you're using does not
|
|
support realtime signals. <P>
|
|
|
|
LinuxThreads needs two signals for its internal operation.
|
|
One is used to suspend and restart threads blocked on mutex, condition
|
|
or semaphore operations. The other is used for thread
|
|
cancellation.<P>
|
|
|
|
On ``old'' kernels (2.0 and early 2.1 kernels), there are only 32
|
|
signals available and the kernel reserves all of them but two:
|
|
<code>SIGUSR1</code> and <code>SIGUSR2</code>. So, LinuxThreads has
|
|
no choice but use those two signals.<P>
|
|
|
|
On recent kernels (late 2.1 kernels and the forthcoming 2.2 kernels),
|
|
more than 32 signals are provided in the form of realtime signals.
|
|
When run on one of those kernels, LinuxThreads uses two reserved
|
|
realtime signals for its internal operation, thus leaving
|
|
<code>SIGUSR1</code> and <code>SIGUSR2</code> free for user code.<P>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="H.5">H.5: Is the stack of one thread visible from the
|
|
other threads? Can I pass a pointer into my stack to other threads?
|
|
</A></H4>
|
|
|
|
Yes, you can -- if you're very careful. The stacks are indeed visible
|
|
from all threads in the system. Some non-POSIX thread libraries seem
|
|
to map the stacks for all threads at the same virtual addresses and
|
|
change the memory mapping when they switch from one thread to
|
|
another. But this is not the case for LinuxThreads, as it would make
|
|
context switching between threads more expensive, and at any rate
|
|
might not conform to the POSIX standard.<P>
|
|
|
|
So, you can take the address of an "auto" variable and pass it to
|
|
other threads via shared data structures. However, you need to make
|
|
absolutely sure that the function doing this will not return as long
|
|
as other threads need to access this address. It's the usual mistake
|
|
of returning the address of an "auto" variable, only made much worse
|
|
because of concurrency. It's much, much safer to systematically
|
|
heap-allocate all shared data structures. <P>
|
|
|
|
<HR>
|
|
<P>
|
|
|
|
<H2><A NAME="I">I. X-Windows and other libraries</A></H2>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="I.1">I.1: My program uses both Xlib and LinuxThreads.
|
|
It stops very early with an "Xlib: unknown 0 error" message. What
|
|
does this mean? </A></H4>
|
|
|
|
That's a prime example of the errno problem described in question <A
|
|
HREF="#H.2">H.2</A>. The binaries for Xlib you're using have not been
|
|
compiled with <CODE>-D_REENTRANT</CODE>. It happens Xlib contains a
|
|
piece of code very much like the one in question <A
|
|
HREF="#H.2">H.2</A>. So, your Xlib fetches the error code from the
|
|
wrong errno location and concludes that an error it cannot handle
|
|
occurred.<P>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="I.2">I.2: So, what can I do to build a multithreaded X
|
|
Windows client? </A></H4>
|
|
|
|
The best solution is to use X libraries that have been compiled with
|
|
multithreading options set. Linux distributions that come with glibc
|
|
2 as the main C library generally provide thread-safe X libraries.
|
|
At least, that seems to be the case for RedHat 5.<P>
|
|
|
|
You can try to recompile yourself the X libraries with multithreading
|
|
options set. They contain optional support for multithreading; it's
|
|
just that the binaries provided by your Linux distribution were built
|
|
without this support. See the file <code>README.Xfree3.3</code> in
|
|
the LinuxThreads distribution for patches and info on how to compile
|
|
thread-safe X libraries from the Xfree3.3 distribution. The Xfree3.3
|
|
sources are readily available in most Linux distributions, e.g. as a
|
|
source RPM for RedHat. Be warned, however, that X Windows is a huge
|
|
system, and recompiling even just the libraries takes a lot of time
|
|
and disk space.<P>
|
|
|
|
Another, less involving solution is to call X functions only from the
|
|
main thread of your program. Even if all threads have their own errno
|
|
location, the main thread uses the global errno variable for its errno
|
|
location. Thus, code not compiled with <code>-D_REENTRANT</code>
|
|
still "sees" the right error values if it executes in the main thread
|
|
only. <P>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="I.2">This is a lot of work. Don't you have precompiled
|
|
thread-safe X libraries that you could distribute?</A></H4>
|
|
|
|
No, I don't. Sorry. But consider installing a Linux distribution
|
|
that comes with thread-safe X libraries, such as RedHat 5.<P>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="I.3">I.3: Can I use library FOO in a multithreaded
|
|
program?</A></H4>
|
|
|
|
Most libraries cannot be used "as is" in a multithreaded program.
|
|
For one thing, they are not necessarily thread-safe: calling
|
|
simultaneously two functions of the library from two threads might not
|
|
work, due to internal use of global variables and the like. Second,
|
|
the libraries must have been compiled with <CODE>-D_REENTRANT</CODE> to avoid
|
|
the errno problems explained in question <A HREF="#H.2">H.2</A>.
|
|
<P>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="I.4">I.4: What if I make sure that only one thread calls
|
|
functions in these libraries?</A></H4>
|
|
|
|
This avoids problems with the library not being thread-safe. But
|
|
you're still vulnerable to errno problems. At the very least, a
|
|
recompile of the library with <CODE>-D_REENTRANT</CODE> is needed.
|
|
<P>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="I.5">I.5: What if I make sure that only the main thread
|
|
calls functions in these libraries?</A></H4>
|
|
|
|
That might actually work. As explained in question <A HREF="#I.1">I.1</A>,
|
|
the main thread uses the global errno variable, and can therefore
|
|
execute code not compiled with <CODE>-D_REENTRANT</CODE>.<P>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="I.6">I.6: SVGAlib doesn't work with LinuxThreads. Why?
|
|
</A></H4>
|
|
|
|
Because both LinuxThreads and SVGAlib use the signals
|
|
<code>SIGUSR1</code> and <code>SIGUSR2</code>. See question <A
|
|
HREF="#H.4">H.4</A>.
|
|
<P>
|
|
|
|
|
|
<HR>
|
|
<P>
|
|
|
|
<H2><A NAME="J">J. Signals and threads</A></H2>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="J.1">J.1: When it comes to signals, what is shared
|
|
between threads and what isn't?</A></H4>
|
|
|
|
Signal handlers are shared between all threads: when a thread calls
|
|
<CODE>sigaction()</CODE>, it sets how the signal is handled not only
|
|
for itself, but for all other threads in the program as well.<P>
|
|
|
|
On the other hand, signal masks are per-thread: each thread chooses
|
|
which signals it blocks independently of others. At thread creation
|
|
time, the newly created thread inherits the signal mask of the thread
|
|
calling <CODE>pthread_create()</CODE>. But afterwards, the new thread
|
|
can modify its signal mask independently of its creator thread.<P>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="J.2">J.2: When I send a <CODE>SIGKILL</CODE> to a
|
|
particular thread using <CODE>pthread_kill</CODE>, all my threads are
|
|
killed!</A></H4>
|
|
|
|
That's how it should be. The POSIX standard mandates that all threads
|
|
should terminate when the process (i.e. the collection of all threads
|
|
running the program) receives a signal whose effect is to
|
|
terminate the process (such as <CODE>SIGKILL</CODE> or <CODE>SIGINT</CODE>
|
|
when no handler is installed on that signal). This behavior makes a
|
|
lot of sense: when you type "ctrl-C" at the keyboard, or when a thread
|
|
crashes on a division by zero or a segmentation fault, you really want
|
|
all threads to stop immediately, not just the one that caused the
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|
segmentation violation or that got the <CODE>SIGINT</CODE> signal.
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|
(This assumes default behavior for those signals; see question
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<A HREF="#J.3">J.3</A> if you install handlers for those signals.)<P>
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|
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If you're trying to terminate a thread without bringing the whole
|
|
process down, use <code>pthread_cancel()</code>.<P>
|
|
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<H4><A NAME="J.3">J.3: I've installed a handler on a signal. Which
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|
thread executes the handler when the signal is received?</A></H4>
|
|
|
|
If the signal is generated by a thread during its execution (e.g. a
|
|
thread executes a division by zero and thus generates a
|
|
<CODE>SIGFPE</CODE> signal), then the handler is executed by that
|
|
thread. This also applies to signals generated by
|
|
<CODE>raise()</CODE>.<P>
|
|
|
|
If the signal is sent to a particular thread using
|
|
<CODE>pthread_kill()</CODE>, then that thread executes the handler.<P>
|
|
|
|
If the signal is sent via <CODE>kill()</CODE> or the tty interface
|
|
(e.g. by pressing ctrl-C), then the POSIX specs say that the handler
|
|
is executed by any thread in the process that does not currently block
|
|
the signal. In other terms, POSIX considers that the signal is sent
|
|
to the process (the collection of all threads) as a whole, and any
|
|
thread that is not blocking this signal can then handle it.<P>
|
|
|
|
The latter case is where LinuxThreads departs from the POSIX specs.
|
|
In LinuxThreads, there is no real notion of ``the process as a whole'':
|
|
in the kernel, each thread is really a distinct process with a
|
|
distinct PID, and signals sent to the PID of a thread can only be
|
|
handled by that thread. As long as no thread is blocking the signal,
|
|
the behavior conforms to the standard: one (unspecified) thread of the
|
|
program handles the signal. But if the thread to which PID the signal
|
|
is sent blocks the signal, and some other thread does not block the
|
|
signal, then LinuxThreads will simply queue in
|
|
that thread and execute the handler only when that thread unblocks
|
|
the signal, instead of executing the handler immediately in the other
|
|
thread that does not block the signal.<P>
|
|
|
|
This is to be viewed as a LinuxThreads bug, but I currently don't see
|
|
any way to implement the POSIX behavior without kernel support.<P>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="J.3">J.3: How shall I go about mixing signals and threads
|
|
in my program? </A></H4>
|
|
|
|
The less you mix them, the better. Notice that all
|
|
<CODE>pthread_*</CODE> functions are not async-signal safe, meaning
|
|
that you should not call them from signal handlers. This
|
|
recommendation is not to be taken lightly: your program can deadlock
|
|
if you call a <CODE>pthread_*</CODE> function from a signal handler!
|
|
<P>
|
|
|
|
The only sensible things you can do from a signal handler is set a
|
|
global flag, or call <CODE>sem_post</CODE> on a semaphore, to record
|
|
the delivery of the signal. The remainder of the program can then
|
|
either poll the global flag, or use <CODE>sem_wait()</CODE> and
|
|
<CODE>sem_trywait()</CODE> on the semaphore.<P>
|
|
|
|
Another option is to do nothing in the signal handler, and dedicate
|
|
one thread (preferably the initial thread) to wait synchronously for
|
|
signals, using <CODE>sigwait()</CODE>, and send messages to the other
|
|
threads accordingly.
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="J.4">J.4: When one thread is blocked in
|
|
<CODE>sigwait()</CODE>, other threads no longer receive the signals
|
|
<CODE>sigwait()</CODE> is waiting for! What happens? </A></H4>
|
|
|
|
It's an unfortunate consequence of how LinuxThreads implements
|
|
<CODE>sigwait()</CODE>. Basically, it installs signal handlers on all
|
|
signals waited for, in order to record which signal was received.
|
|
Since signal handlers are shared with the other threads, this
|
|
temporarily deactivates any signal handlers you might have previously
|
|
installed on these signals.<P>
|
|
|
|
Though surprising, this behavior actually seems to conform to the
|
|
POSIX standard. According to POSIX, <CODE>sigwait()</CODE> is
|
|
guaranteed to work as expected only if all other threads in the
|
|
program block the signals waited for (otherwise, the signals could be
|
|
delivered to other threads than the one doing <CODE>sigwait()</CODE>,
|
|
which would make <CODE>sigwait()</CODE> useless). In this particular
|
|
case, the problem described in this question does not appear.<P>
|
|
|
|
One day, <CODE>sigwait()</CODE> will be implemented in the kernel,
|
|
along with others POSIX 1003.1b extensions, and <CODE>sigwait()</CODE>
|
|
will have a more natural behavior (as well as better performances).<P>
|
|
|
|
<HR>
|
|
<P>
|
|
|
|
<H2><A NAME="K">K. Internals of LinuxThreads</A></H2>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="K.1">K.1: What is the implementation model for
|
|
LinuxThreads?</A></H4>
|
|
|
|
LinuxThreads follows the so-called "one-to-one" model: each thread is
|
|
actually a separate process in the kernel. The kernel scheduler takes
|
|
care of scheduling the threads, just like it schedules regular
|
|
processes. The threads are created with the Linux
|
|
<code>clone()</code> system call, which is a generalization of
|
|
<code>fork()</code> allowing the new process to share the memory
|
|
space, file descriptors, and signal handlers of the parent.<P>
|
|
|
|
Advantages of the "one-to-one" model include:
|
|
<UL>
|
|
<LI> minimal overhead on CPU-intensive multiprocessing (with
|
|
about one thread per processor);
|
|
<LI> minimal overhead on I/O operations;
|
|
<LI> a simple and robust implementation (the kernel scheduler does
|
|
most of the hard work for us).
|
|
</UL>
|
|
The main disadvantage is more expensive context switches on mutex and
|
|
condition operations, which must go through the kernel. This is
|
|
mitigated by the fact that context switches in the Linux kernel are
|
|
pretty efficient.<P>
|
|
|
|
<H4><A NAME="K.2">K.2: Have you considered other implementation
|
|
models?</A></H4>
|
|
|
|
There are basically two other models. The "many-to-one" model
|
|
relies on a user-level scheduler that context-switches between the
|
|
threads entirely in user code; viewed from the kernel, there is only
|
|
one process running. This model is completely out of the question for
|
|
me, since it does not take advantage of multiprocessors, and require
|
|
unholy magic to handle blocking I/O operations properly. There are
|
|
several user-level thread libraries available for Linux, but I found
|
|
all of them deficient in functionality, performance, and/or robustness.
|
|
<P>
|
|
|
|
The "many-to-many" model combines both kernel-level and user-level
|
|
scheduling: several kernel-level threads run concurrently, each
|
|
executing a user-level scheduler that selects between user threads.
|
|
Most commercial Unix systems (Solaris, Digital Unix, IRIX) implement
|
|
POSIX threads this way. This model combines the advantages of both
|
|
the "many-to-one" and the "one-to-one" model, and is attractive
|
|
because it avoids the worst-case behaviors of both models --
|
|
especially on kernels where context switches are expensive, such as
|
|
Digital Unix. Unfortunately, it is pretty complex to implement, and
|
|
requires kernel support which Linux does not provide. Linus Torvalds
|
|
and other Linux kernel developers have always been pushing the
|
|
"one-to-one" model in the name of overall simplicity, and are doing a
|
|
pretty good job of making kernel-level context switches between
|
|
threads efficient. LinuxThreads is just following the general
|
|
direction they set.<P>
|
|
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<HR>
|
|
<ADDRESS>Xavier.Leroy@inria.fr</ADDRESS>
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