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<!--
$Header: /cvsroot/pgsql/doc/src/sgml/Attic/plsql.sgml,v 2.7 2000/05/16 21:16:12 momjian Exp $
-->
<chapter>
<title>PL/pgSQL - SQL Procedural Language</title>
<para>
PL/pgSQL is a loadable procedural language for the
<productname>Postgres</productname> database system.
</para>
<para>
This package was originally written by Jan Wieck.
</para>
<sect1>
<title>Overview</title>
<para>
The design goals of PL/pgSQL were to create a loadable procedural
language that
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
can be used to create functions and trigger procedures,
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
adds control structures to the <acronym>SQL</acronym> language,
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
can perform complex computations,
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
inherits all user defined types, functions and operators,
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
can be defined to be trusted by the server,
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
is easy to use.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>
The PL/pgSQL call handler parses the functions source text and
produces an internal binary instruction tree on the first time, the
function is called by a backend. The produced bytecode is identified
in the call handler by the object ID of the function. This ensures,
that changing a function by a DROP/CREATE sequence will take effect
without establishing a new database connection.
</para>
<para>
For all expressions and <acronym>SQL</acronym> statements used in
the function, the PL/pgSQL bytecode interpreter creates a
prepared execution plan using the SPI managers SPI_prepare() and
SPI_saveplan() functions. This is done the first time, the individual
statement is processed in the PL/pgSQL function. Thus, a function with
conditional code that contains many statements for which execution
plans would be required, will only prepare and save those plans
that are really used during the entire lifetime of the database
connection.
</para>
<para>
Except for input-/output-conversion and calculation functions
for user defined types, anything that can be defined in C language
functions can also be done with PL/pgSQL. It is possible to
create complex conditional computation functions and later use
them to define operators or use them in functional indices.
</para>
</sect1>
<!-- **** PL/pgSQL Description **** -->
<sect1>
<title>Description</title>
<!-- **** PL/pgSQL structure **** -->
<sect2>
<title>Structure of PL/pgSQL</title>
<para>
The PL/pgSQL language is case insensitive. All keywords and
identifiers can be used in mixed upper- and lowercase.
</para>
<para>
PL/pgSQL is a block oriented language. A block is defined as
<programlisting>
[&lt;&lt;label&gt;&gt;]
[DECLARE
<replaceable>declarations</replaceable>]
BEGIN
<replaceable>statements</replaceable>
END;
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
There can be any number of subblocks in the statement section
of a block. Subblocks can be used to hide variables from outside a
block of statements. The variables
declared in the declarations section preceding a block are
initialized to their default values every time the block is entered,
not only once per function call.
</para>
<para>
It is important not to misunderstand the meaning of BEGIN/END for
grouping statements in PL/pgSQL and the database commands for
transaction control. Functions and trigger procedures cannot
start or commit transactions and <productname>Postgres</productname>
does not have nested transactions.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Comments</title>
<para>
There are two types of comments in PL/pgSQL. A double dash '--'
starts a comment that extends to the end of the line. A '/*'
starts a block comment that extends to the next occurence of '*/'.
Block comments cannot be nested, but double dash comments can be
enclosed into a block comment and a double dash can hide
the block comment delimiters '/*' and '*/'.
</para>
</sect2>
<!-- **** PL/pgSQL declarations **** -->
<sect2>
<title>Declarations</title>
<para>
All variables, rows and records used in a block or it's
subblocks must be declared in the declarations section of a block
except for the loop variable of a FOR loop iterating over a range
of integer values. Parameters given to a PL/pgSQL function are
automatically declared with the usual identifiers $n.
The declarations have the following syntax:
</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>
<replaceable>name</replaceable> [ CONSTANT ]
<replaceable>type</replaceable>> [ NOT NULL ] [ DEFAULT | :=
<replaceable>value</replaceable> ];
</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Declares a variable of the specified base type. If the variable
is declared as CONSTANT, the value cannot be changed. If NOT NULL
is specified, an assignment of a NULL value results in a runtime
error. Since the default value of all variables is the
<acronym>SQL</acronym> NULL value, all variables declared as NOT NULL
must also have a default value specified.
</para>
<para>
The default value is evaluated ever time the function is called. So
assigning '<replaceable>now</replaceable>' to a variable of type
<replaceable>datetime</replaceable> causes the variable to have the
time of the actual function call, not when the function was
precompiled into it's bytecode.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>
<replaceable>name</replaceable> <replaceable>class</replaceable>%ROWTYPE;
</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Declares a row with the structure of the given class. Class must be
an existing table- or viewname of the database. The fields of the row
are accessed in the dot notation. Parameters to a function can
be composite types (complete table rows). In that case, the
corresponding identifier $n will be a rowtype, but it
must be aliased using the ALIAS command described below. Only the user
attributes of a table row are accessible in the row, no Oid or other
system attributes (hence the row could be from a view and view rows
don't have useful system attributes).
</para>
<para>
The fields of the rowtype inherit the tables fieldsizes
or precision for char() etc. data types.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>
<replaceable>name</replaceable> RECORD;
</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Records are similar to rowtypes, but they have no predefined structure.
They are used in selections and FOR loops to hold one actual
database row from a SELECT operation. One and the same record can be
used in different selections. Accessing a record or an attempt to assign
a value to a record field when there is no actual row in it results
in a runtime error.
</para>
<para>
The NEW and OLD rows in a trigger are given to the procedure as
records. This is necessary because in <productname>Postgres</productname>
one and the same trigger procedure can handle trigger events for
different tables.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>
<replaceable>name</replaceable> ALIAS FOR $n;
</term>
<listitem>
<para>
For better readability of the code it is possible to define an alias
for a positional parameter to a function.
</para>
<para>
This aliasing is required for composite types given as arguments to
a function. The dot notation $1.salary as in SQL functions is not
allowed in PL/pgSQL.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>
RENAME <replaceable>oldname</replaceable> TO <replaceable>newname</replaceable>;
</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Change the name of a variable, record or row. This is useful
if NEW or OLD should be referenced by another name inside a
trigger procedure.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</sect2>
<!-- **** PL/pgSQL data types **** -->
<sect2>
<title>Data Types</title>
<para>
The type of a varible can be any of the existing basetypes of
the database. <replaceable>type</replaceable> in the declarations
section above is defined as:
</para>
<para>
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
<productname>Postgres</productname>-basetype
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<replaceable>variable</replaceable>%TYPE
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<replaceable>class.field</replaceable>%TYPE
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>
<replaceable>variable</replaceable> is the name of a variable,
previously declared in the
same function, that is visible at this point.
</para>
<para>
<replaceable>class</replaceable> is the name of an existing table
or view where <replaceable>field</replaceable> is the name of
an attribute.
</para>
<para>
Using the <replaceable>class.field</replaceable>%TYPE
causes PL/pgSQL to lookup the attributes definitions at the
first call to the function during the lifetime of a backend.
Have a table with a char(20) attribute and some PL/pgSQL functions
that deal with it's content in local variables. Now someone
decides that char(20) isn't enough, dumps the table, drops it,
recreates it now with the attribute in question defined as
char(40) and restores the data. Ha - he forgot about the
funcitons. The computations inside them will truncate the values
to 20 characters. But if they are defined using the
<replaceable>class.field</replaceable>%TYPE
declarations, they will automagically handle the size change or
if the new table schema defines the attribute as text type.
</para>
</sect2>
<!-- **** PL/pgSQL expressions **** -->
<sect2>
<title>Expressions</title>
<para>
All expressions used in PL/pgSQL statements are processed using
the backends executor. Expressions which appear to contain
constants may in fact require run-time evaluation (e.g. 'now' for the
datetime type) so
it is impossible for the PL/pgSQL parser
to identify real constant values other than the NULL keyword. All
expressions are evaluated internally by executing a query
<programlisting>
SELECT <replaceable>expression</replaceable>
</programlisting>
using the SPI manager. In the expression, occurences of variable
identifiers are substituted by parameters and the actual values from
the variables are passed to the executor in the parameter array. All
expressions used in a PL/pgSQL function are only prepared and
saved once.
</para>
<para>
The type checking done by the <productname>Postgres</productname>
main parser has some side
effects to the interpretation of constant values. In detail there
is a difference between what the two functions
<programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION logfunc1 (text) RETURNS datetime AS '
DECLARE
logtxt ALIAS FOR $1;
BEGIN
INSERT INTO logtable VALUES (logtxt, ''now'');
RETURN ''now'';
END;
' LANGUAGE 'plpgsql';
</programlisting>
and
<programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION logfunc2 (text) RETURNS datetime AS '
DECLARE
logtxt ALIAS FOR $1;
curtime datetime;
BEGIN
curtime := ''now'';
INSERT INTO logtable VALUES (logtxt, curtime);
RETURN curtime;
END;
' LANGUAGE 'plpgsql';
</programlisting>
do. In the case of logfunc1(), the <productname>Postgres</productname>
main parser
knows when preparing the plan for the INSERT, that the string 'now'
should be interpreted as datetime because the target field of logtable
is of that type. Thus, it will make a constant from it at this time
and this constant value is then used in all invocations of logfunc1()
during the lifetime of the backend. Needless to say that this isn't what the
programmer wanted.
</para>
<para>
In the case of logfunc2(), the <productname>Postgres</productname>
main parser does not know
what type 'now' should become and therefor it returns a datatype of
text containing the string 'now'. During the assignment
to the local variable curtime, the PL/pgSQL interpreter casts this
string to the datetime type by calling the text_out() and datetime_in()
functions for the conversion.
</para>
<para>
This type checking done by the <productname>Postgres</productname> main
parser got implemented after PL/pgSQL was nearly done.
It is a difference between 6.3 and 6.4 and affects all functions
using the prepared plan feature of the SPI manager.
Using a local
variable in the above manner is currently the only way in PL/pgSQL to get
those values interpreted correctly.
</para>
<para>
If record fields are used in expressions or statements, the data types of
fields should not change between calls of one and the same expression.
Keep this in mind when writing trigger procedures that handle events
for more than one table.
</para>
</sect2>
<!-- **** PL/pgSQL statements **** -->
<sect2>
<title>Statements</title>
<para>
Anything not understood by the PL/pgSQL parser as specified below
will be put into a query and sent down to the database engine
to execute. The resulting query should not return any data.
</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>Assignment</term>
<listitem>
<para>
An assignment of a value to a variable or row/record field is
written as
<programlisting>
<replaceable>identifier</replaceable> := <replaceable>expression</replaceable>;
</programlisting>
If the expressions result data type doesn't match the variables
data type, or the variable has a size/precision that is known
(as for char(20)), the result value will be implicitly casted by
the PL/pgSQL bytecode interpreter using the result types output- and
the variables type input-functions. Note that this could potentially
result in runtime errors generated by the types input functions.
</para>
<para>
An assignment of a complete selection into a record or row can
be done by
<programlisting>
SELECT <replaceable>expressions</replaceable> INTO <replaceable>target</replaceable> FROM ...;
</programlisting>
<replaceable>target</replaceable> can be a record, a row variable or a
comma separated list of variables and record-/row-fields.
</para>
<para>
if a row or a variable list is used as target, the selected values
must exactly match the structure of the target(s) or a runtime error
occurs. The FROM keyword can be followed by any valid qualification,
grouping, sorting etc. that can be given for a SELECT statement.
</para>
<para>
There is a special variable named FOUND of type bool that can be used
immediately after a SELECT INTO to check if an assignment had success.
<programlisting>
SELECT * INTO myrec FROM EMP WHERE empname = myname;
IF NOT FOUND THEN
RAISE EXCEPTION ''employee % not found'', myname;
END IF;
</programlisting>
If the selection returns multiple rows, only the first is moved
into the target fields. All others are silently discarded.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>Calling another function</term>
<listitem>
<para>
All functions defined in a <productname>Prostgres</productname>
database return a value. Thus, the normal way to call a function
is to execute a SELECT query or doing an assignment (resulting
in a PL/pgSQL internal SELECT). But there are cases where someone
isn't interested int the functions result.
<programlisting>
PERFORM <replaceable>query</replaceable>
</programlisting>
executes a 'SELECT <replaceable>query</replaceable>' over the
SPI manager and discards the result. Identifiers like local
variables are still substituted into parameters.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>Returning from the function</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<programlisting>
RETURN <replaceable>expression</replaceable>
</programlisting>
The function terminates and the value of <replaceable>expression</replaceable>
will be returned to the upper executor. The return value of a function
cannot be undefined. If control reaches the end of the toplevel block
of the function without hitting a RETURN statement, a runtime error
will occur.
</para>
<para>
The expressions result will be automatically casted into the
functions return type as described for assignments.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>Aborting and messages</term>
<listitem>
<para>
As indicated in the above examples there is a RAISE statement that
can throw messages into the <productname>Postgres</productname>
elog mechanism.
<programlisting>
RAISE <replaceable class="parameter">level</replaceable> <replaceable class="parameter">format</replaceable>'' [, <replaceable class="parameter">identifier</replaceable> [...]];
</programlisting>
Inside the format, "<literal>%</literal>" is used as a placeholder for the
subsequent comma-separated identifiers. Possible levels are
DEBUG (silently suppressed in production running databases), NOTICE
(written into the database log and forwarded to the client application)
and EXCEPTION (written into the database log and aborting the transaction).
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>Conditionals</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<programlisting>
IF <replaceable>expression</replaceable> THEN
<replaceable>statements</replaceable>
[ELSE
<replaceable>statements</replaceable>]
END IF;
</programlisting>
The <replaceable>expression</replaceable> must return a value that
at least can be casted into a boolean type.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>
Loops
</term>
<listitem>
<para>
There are multiple types of loops.
<programlisting>
[&lt;&lt;label&gt;&gt;]
LOOP
<replaceable>statements</replaceable>
END LOOP;
</programlisting>
An unconditional loop that must be terminated explicitly
by an EXIT statement. The optional label can be used by
EXIT statements of nested loops to specify which level of
nesting should be terminated.
<programlisting>
[&lt;&lt;label&gt;&gt;]
WHILE <replaceable>expression</replaceable> LOOP
<replaceable>statements</replaceable>
END LOOP;
</programlisting>
A conditional loop that is executed as long as the evaluation
of <replaceable>expression</replaceable> is true.
<programlisting>
[&lt;&lt;label&gt;&gt;]
FOR <replaceable>name</replaceable> IN [ REVERSE ] <replaceable>expression</replaceable> .. <replaceable>expression</replaceable> LOOP
<replaceable>statements</replaceable>
END LOOP;
</programlisting>
A loop that iterates over a range of integer values. The variable
<replaceable>name</replaceable> is automatically created as type
integer and exists only inside the loop. The two expressions giving
the lower and upper bound of the range are evaluated only when entering
the loop. The iteration step is always 1.
<programlisting>
[&lt;&lt;label&gt;&gt;]
FOR <replaceable>record | row</replaceable> IN <replaceable>select_clause</replaceable> LOOP
<replaceable>statements</replaceable>
END LOOP;
</programlisting>
The record or row is assigned all the rows resulting from the select
clause and the statements executed for each. If the loop is terminated
with an EXIT statement, the last assigned row is still accessible
after the loop.
<programlisting>
EXIT [ <replaceable>label</replaceable> ] [ WHEN <replaceable>expression</replaceable> ];
</programlisting>
If no <replaceable>label</replaceable> given,
the innermost loop is terminated and the
statement following END LOOP is executed next.
If <replaceable>label</replaceable> is given, it
must be the label of the current or an upper level of nested loop
blocks. Then the named loop or block is terminated and control
continues with the statement after the loops/blocks corresponding
END.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</sect2>
<!-- **** PL/pgSQL trigger procedures **** -->
<sect2>
<title>Trigger Procedures</title>
<para>
PL/pgSQL can be used to define trigger procedures. They are created
with the usual CREATE FUNCTION command as a function with no
arguments and a return type of OPAQUE.
</para>
<para>
There are some <productname>Postgres</productname> specific details
in functions used as trigger procedures.
</para>
<para>
First they have some special variables created automatically in the
toplevel blocks declaration section. They are
</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term>NEW</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Datatype RECORD; variable holding the new database row on INSERT/UPDATE
operations on ROW level triggers.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>OLD</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Datatype RECORD; variable holding the old database row on UPDATE/DELETE
operations on ROW level triggers.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>TG_NAME</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Datatype name; variable that contains the name of the trigger actually
fired.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>TG_WHEN</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Datatype text; a string of either 'BEFORE' or 'AFTER' depending on the
triggers definition.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>TG_LEVEL</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Datatype text; a string of either 'ROW' or 'STATEMENT' depending on the
triggers definition.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>TG_OP</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Datatype text; a string of 'INSERT', 'UPDATE' or 'DELETE' telling
for which operation the trigger is actually fired.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>TG_RELID</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Datatype oid; the object ID of the table that caused the
trigger invocation.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>TG_RELNAME</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Datatype name; the name of the table that caused the trigger
invocation.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>TG_NARGS</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Datatype integer; the number of arguments given to the trigger
procedure in the CREATE TRIGGER statement.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term>TG_ARGV[]</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Datatype array of text; the arguments from the CREATE TRIGGER statement.
The index counts from 0 and can be given as an expression. Invalid
indices (&lt; 0 or &gt;= tg_nargs) result in a NULL value.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
<para>
Second they must return either NULL or a record/row containing
exactly the structure of the table the trigger was fired for.
Triggers fired AFTER might always return a NULL value with no
effect. Triggers fired BEFORE signal the trigger manager
to skip the operation for this actual row when returning NULL.
Otherwise, the returned record/row replaces the inserted/updated
row in the operation. It is possible to replace single values directly
in NEW and return that or to build a complete new record/row to
return.
</para>
</sect2>
<!-- **** PL/pgSQL exceptions **** -->
<sect2>
<title>Exceptions</title>
<para>
<productname>Postgres</productname> does not have a very smart
exception handling model. Whenever the parser, planner/optimizer
or executor decide that a statement cannot be processed any longer,
the whole transaction gets aborted and the system jumps back
into the mainloop to get the next query from the client application.
</para>
<para>
It is possible to hook into the error mechanism to notice that this
happens. But currently it's impossible to tell what really
caused the abort (input/output conversion error, floating point
error, parse error). And it is possible that the database backend
is in an inconsistent state at this point so returning to the upper
executor or issuing more commands might corrupt the whole database.
And even if, at this point the information, that the transaction
is aborted, is already sent to the client application, so resuming
operation does not make any sense.
</para>
<para>
Thus, the only thing PL/pgSQL currently does when it encounters
an abort during execution of a function or trigger
procedure is to write some additional DEBUG level log messages
telling in which function and where (line number and type of
statement) this happened.
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<!-- **** PL/pgSQL Examples **** -->
<sect1>
<title>Examples</title>
<para>
Here are only a few functions to demonstrate how easy PL/pgSQL
functions can be written. For more complex examples the programmer
might look at the regression test for PL/pgSQL.
</para>
<para>
One painful detail of writing functions in PL/pgSQL is the handling
of single quotes. The functions source text on CREATE FUNCTION must
be a literal string. Single quotes inside of literal strings must be
either doubled or quoted with a backslash. We are still looking for
an elegant alternative. In the meantime, doubling the single qoutes
as in the examples below should be used. Any solution for this
in future versions of <productname>Postgres</productname> will be
upward compatible.
</para>
<sect2>
<title>Some Simple PL/pgSQL Functions</title>
<para>
The following two PL/pgSQL functions are identical to their
counterparts from the C language function discussion.
<programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION add_one (int4) RETURNS int4 AS '
BEGIN
RETURN $1 + 1;
END;
' LANGUAGE 'plpgsql';
</programlisting>
<programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION concat_text (text, text) RETURNS text AS '
BEGIN
RETURN $1 || $2;
END;
' LANGUAGE 'plpgsql';
</programlisting>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>PL/pgSQL Function on Composite Type</title>
<para>
Again it is the PL/pgSQL equivalent to the example from
The C functions.
<programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION c_overpaid (EMP, int4) RETURNS bool AS '
DECLARE
emprec ALIAS FOR $1;
sallim ALIAS FOR $2;
BEGIN
IF emprec.salary ISNULL THEN
RETURN ''f'';
END IF;
RETURN emprec.salary > sallim;
END;
' LANGUAGE 'plpgsql';
</programlisting>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>PL/pgSQL Trigger Procedure</title>
<para>
This trigger ensures, that any time a row is inserted or updated
in the table, the current username and time are stamped into the
row. And it ensures that an employees name is given and that the
salary is a positive value.
<programlisting>
CREATE TABLE emp (
empname text,
salary int4,
last_date datetime,
last_user name);
CREATE FUNCTION emp_stamp () RETURNS OPAQUE AS '
BEGIN
-- Check that empname and salary are given
IF NEW.empname ISNULL THEN
RAISE EXCEPTION ''empname cannot be NULL value'';
END IF;
IF NEW.salary ISNULL THEN
RAISE EXCEPTION ''% cannot have NULL salary'', NEW.empname;
END IF;
-- Who works for us when she must pay for?
IF NEW.salary < 0 THEN
RAISE EXCEPTION ''% cannot have a negative salary'', NEW.empname;
END IF;
-- Remember who changed the payroll when
NEW.last_date := ''now'';
NEW.last_user := getpgusername();
RETURN NEW;
END;
' LANGUAGE 'plpgsql';
CREATE TRIGGER emp_stamp BEFORE INSERT OR UPDATE ON emp
FOR EACH ROW EXECUTE PROCEDURE emp_stamp();
</programlisting>
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
</chapter>
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