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<!--
$Header: /cvsroot/pgsql/doc/src/sgml/runtime.sgml,v 1.185 2003/06/12 15:31:02 momjian Exp $
-->
<Chapter Id="runtime">
<Title>Server Run-time Environment</Title>
<Para>
This chapter discusses how to set up and run the database server
and the interactions with the operating system.
</para>
<sect1 id="postgres-user">
<title>The <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> User Account</title>
<indexterm>
<primary>postgres user</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
As with any other server daemon that is connected to outside world,
it is advisable to run <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> under a
separate user account. This user account should only own the data
that is managed by the server, and should not be shared with other
daemons. (For example, using the user <literal>nobody</literal> is a bad
idea.) It is not advisable to install executables owned by
this user because compromised systems could then modify their own
binaries.
</para>
<para>
To add a Unix user account to your system, look for a command
<command>useradd</command> or <command>adduser</command>. The user
name <systemitem>postgres</systemitem> is often used but is by no
means required.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="creating-cluster">
<title>Creating a Database Cluster</title>
<indexterm>
<primary>database cluster</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>data area</primary>
<see>database cluster</see>
</indexterm>
<para>
Before you can do anything, you must initialize a database storage
area on disk. We call this a <firstterm>database cluster</firstterm>.
(<acronym>SQL</acronym> uses the term catalog cluster instead.) A
database cluster is a collection of databases is accessible by a
single instance of a running database server. After initialization, a
database cluster will contain a database named
<literal>template1</literal>. As the name suggests, this will be used
as a template for subsequently created databases; it should not be
used for actual work. (See <xref linkend="managing-databases"> for information
about creating databases.)
</para>
<para>
In file system terms, a database cluster will be a single directory
under which all data will be stored. We call this the <firstterm>data
directory</firstterm> or <firstterm>data area</firstterm>. It is
completely up to you where you choose to store your data. There is no
default, although locations such as
<filename>/usr/local/pgsql/data</filename> or
<filename>/var/lib/pgsql/data</filename> are popular. To initialize a
database cluster, use the command <command>initdb</command>, which is
installed with <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>. The desired
file system location of your database system is indicated by the
<option>-D</option> option, for example
<screen>
<prompt>$</> <userinput>initdb -D /usr/local/pgsql/data</userinput>
</screen>
Note that you must execute this command while logged into the
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> user account, which is
described in the previous section.
</para>
<tip>
<para>
As an alternative to the <option>-D</option> option, you can set
the environment variable <envar>PGDATA</envar>.
<indexterm><primary><envar>PGDATA</envar></primary></indexterm>
</para>
</tip>
<para>
<command>initdb</command> will attempt to create the directory you
specify if it does not already exist. It is likely that it will not
have the permission to do so (if you followed our advice and created
an unprivileged account). In that case you should create the
directory yourself (as root) and change the owner to be the
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> user. Here is how this might
be done:
<screen>
root# <userinput>mkdir /usr/local/pgsql/data</userinput>
root# <userinput>chown postgres /usr/local/pgsql/data</userinput>
root# <userinput>su postgres</userinput>
postgres$ <userinput>initdb -D /usr/local/pgsql/data</userinput>
</screen>
</para>
<para>
<command>initdb</command> will refuse to run if the data directory
looks like it it has already been initialized.</para>
<para>
Because the data directory contains all the data stored in the
database, it is essential that it be secured from unauthorized
access. <command>initdb</command> therefore revokes access
permissions from everyone but the
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> user.
</para>
<para>
However, while the directory contents are secure, the default
client authentication setup allows any local user to connect to the
database and even become the database superuser. If you do not trust
other local users, we recommend you use <command>initdb</command>'s
<option>-W</option> or <option>--pwprompt</option> option to assign a
password to the database superuser. After <command>initdb</command>,
modify the <filename>pg_hba.conf</filename> file to use <literal>md5</> or
<literal>password</> instead of <literal>trust</> authentication
<emphasis>before</> you start the server for the first time. (Other
approaches include using <literal>ident</literal> authentication or
file system permissions to restrict connections. See <xref
linkend="client-authentication"> for more information.)
</para>
<para>
<command>initdb</command> also initializes the default
locale<indexterm><primary>locale</></> for the database cluster.
Normally, it will just take the locale settings in the environment
and apply them to the initialized database. It is possible to
specify a different locale for the database; more information about
that can be found in <xref linkend="locale">. The sort order used
within a particular database cluster is set by
<command>initdb</command> and cannot be changed later, short of
dumping all data, rerunning <command>initdb</command>, and
reloading the data. So it's important to make this choice correctly
the first time.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="postmaster-start">
<title>Starting the Database Server</title>
<para>
Before anyone can access the database, you must start the database
server. The database server program is called
<command>postmaster</command>.<indexterm><primary>postmaster</></>
The <command>postmaster</command> must know where to
find the data it is supposed to use. This is done with the
<option>-D</option> option. Thus, the simplest way to start the
server is:
<screen>
$ <userinput>postmaster -D /usr/local/pgsql/data</userinput>
</screen>
which will leave the server running in the foreground. This must be
done while logged into the <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> user
account. Without <option>-D</option>, the server will try to use
the data directory in the environment variable <envar>PGDATA</envar>.
If neither of these succeed, it will fail.
</para>
<para>
To start the <command>postmaster</command> in the
background, use the usual shell syntax:
<screen>
$ <userinput>postmaster -D /usr/local/pgsql/data &gt; logfile 2&gt;&amp;1 &amp;</userinput>
</screen>
It is an important to store the server's <systemitem>stdout</> and
<systemitem>stderr</> output somewhere, as shown above. It will help
for auditing purposes and to diagnose problems. (See <xref
linkend="logfile-maintenance"> for a more thorough discussion of log
file handling.)
</para>
<para>
The <command>postmaster</command> also takes a number of other
command line options. For more information, see the reference page
and <xref linkend="runtime-config"> below. In particular, in order
for the server to accept
TCP/IP<indexterm><primary>TCP/IP</primary></indexterm> connections
(rather than just Unix-domain socket ones), you must specify the
<option>-i</option> option.
</para>
<para>
This shell syntax can get tedious quickly. Therefore the shell
script wrapper
<command>pg_ctl</command><indexterm><primary>pg_ctl</primary></indexterm>
is provided to simplify some tasks. For example:
<programlisting>
pg_ctl start -l logfile
</programlisting>
will start the server in the background and put the output into the
named log file. The <option>-D</option> option has the same meaning
here as in the <command>postmaster</command>. <command>pg_ctl</command> is also
capable of stopping the server.
</para>
<para>
Normally, you will want to start the database server when the
computer boots. Autostart scripts are operating system-specific.
There are a few distributed with
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> in the
<filename>contrib/start-scripts</> directory. This may require root
privileges.
</para>
<para>
Different systems have different conventions for starting up daemons
at boot time. Many systems have a file
<filename>/etc/rc.local</filename> or
<filename>/etc/rc.d/rc.local</filename>. Others use
<filename>rc.d</> directories. Whatever you do, the server must be
run by the <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> user account
<emphasis>and not by root</emphasis> or any other user. Therefore you
probably should form your commands using <literal>su -c '...'
postgres</literal>. For example:
<programlisting>
su -c 'pg_ctl start -D /usr/local/pgsql/data -l serverlog' postgres
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
Here are a few more operating system specific suggestions. (Always
replace these with the proper installation directory and the user
name.)
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
For <productname>FreeBSD</productname>, look at the file
<filename>contrib/start-scripts/freebsd</filename> in the
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> source distribution.
<indexterm><primary>FreeBSD</></>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
On <productname>OpenBSD</productname>, add the following lines
to the file <filename>/etc/rc.local</filename>:
<indexterm><primary>OpenBSD</></>
<programlisting>
if [ -x /usr/local/pgsql/bin/pg_ctl -a -x /usr/local/pgsql/bin/postmaster ]; then
su - -c '/usr/local/pgsql/bin/pg_ctl start -l /var/postgresql/log -s' postgres
echo -n ' postgresql'
fi
</programlisting>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
On <productname>Linux</productname> systems either add
<indexterm><primary>Linux</></>
<programlisting>
/usr/local/pgsql/bin/pg_ctl start -l logfile -D /usr/local/pgsql/data
</programlisting>
to <filename>/etc/rc.d/rc.local</filename> or look at the file
<filename>contrib/start-scripts/linux</filename> in the
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> source distribution.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
On <productname>NetBSD</productname>, either use the
<productname>FreeBSD</productname> or
<productname>Linux</productname> start scripts, depending on
preference. <indexterm><primary>NetBSD</></>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
On <productname>Solaris</productname>, create a file called
<filename>/etc/init.d/postgresql</filename> that contains
the following line:
<indexterm><primary>Solaris</></>
<programlisting>
su - postgres -c "/usr/local/pgsql/bin/pg_ctl start -l logfile -D /usr/local/pgsql/data"
</programlisting>
Then, create a symbolic link to it in <filename>/etc/rc3.d</> as
<filename>S99postgresql</>.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>
While the <command>postmaster</command> is running, its
<acronym>PID</acronym> is stored in the file
<filename>postmaster.pid</filename> in the data directory. This is
used to prevent multiple <command>postmaster</command> processes
running in the same data directory and can also be used for
shutting down the <command>postmaster</command> process.
</para>
<sect2 id="postmaster-start-failures">
<title>Server Start-up Failures</title>
<para>
There are several common reasons the server might fail to
start. Check the server's log file, or start it by hand (without
redirecting standard output or standard error) and see what error
messages appear. Below we explain some of the most common error
messages in more detail.
</para>
<para>
<screen>
FATAL: StreamServerPort: bind() failed: Address already in use
Is another postmaster already running on port 5432?
If not, wait a few seconds an retry.
</screen>
This usually means just what it suggests: you tried to start
another <command>postmaster</command> on the same port where one is already running.
However, if the kernel error message is not <computeroutput>Address
already in use</computeroutput> or some variant of that, there may
be a different problem. For example, trying to start a <command>postmaster</command>
on a reserved port number may draw something like:
<screen>
$ <userinput>postmaster -i -p 666</userinput>
FATAL: StreamServerPort: bind() failed: Permission denied
Is another postmaster already running on port 666?
If not, wait a few seconds an retry.
</screen>
</para>
<para>
A message like
<screen>
IpcMemoryCreate: shmget(key=5440001, size=83918612, 01600) failed: Invalid argument
FATAL 1: ShmemCreate: cannot create region
</screen>
probably means your kernel's limit on the size of shared memory is
smaller than the buffer area <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>
is trying to create (83918612 bytes in this example). Or it could
mean that you do not have System-V-style shared memory support
configured into your kernel at all. As a temporary workaround, you
can try starting the server with a smaller-than-normal number
of buffers (<option>-B</option> switch). You will eventually want
to reconfigure your kernel to increase the allowed shared memory
size. You may also see this message when trying to start multiple
servers on the same machine if their total space requested
exceeds the kernel limit.
</para>
<para>
An error like
<screen>
IpcSemaphoreCreate: semget(key=5440026, num=16, 01600) failed: No space left on device
</screen>
does <emphasis>not</emphasis> mean you've run out of disk
space. It means your kernel's limit on the number of <systemitem
class="osname">System V</> semaphores is smaller than the number
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> wants to create. As above,
you may be able to work around the problem by starting the
server with a reduced number of allowed connections
(<option>-N</option> switch), but you'll eventually want to
increase the kernel limit.
</para>
<para>
If you get an <quote>illegal system call</> error, it is likely that
shared memory or semaphores are not supported in your kernel at
all. In that case your only option is to reconfigure the kernel to
enable these features.
</para>
<para>
Details about configuring <systemitem class="osname">System V</>
<acronym>IPC</> facilities are given in <xref linkend="sysvipc">.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="client-connection-problems">
<title>Client Connection Problems</title>
<para>
Although the error conditions possible on the client side are quite
varied and application-dependent, a few of them might be directly
related to how the server was started up. Conditions other than
those shown below should be documented with the respective client
application.
</para>
<para>
<screen>
psql: could not connect to server: Connection refused
Is the server running on host server.joe.com and accepting
TCP/IP connections on port 5432?
</screen>
This is the generic <quote>I couldn't find a server to talk
to</quote> failure. It looks like the above when TCP/IP
communication is attempted. A common mistake is to forget to
configure the server to allow TCP/IP connections.
</para>
<para>
Alternatively, you'll get this when attempting Unix-domain socket
communication to a local server:
<screen>
psql: could not connect to server: Connection refused
Is the server running locally and accepting
connections on Unix domain socket "/tmp/.s.PGSQL.5432"?
</screen>
</para>
<para>
The last line is useful in verifying that the client is trying to
connect to the right place. If there is in fact no server
running there, the kernel error message will typically be either
<computeroutput>Connection refused</computeroutput> or
<computeroutput>No such file or directory</computeroutput>, as
illustrated. (It is important to realize that
<computeroutput>Connection refused</computeroutput> in this context
does <emphasis>not</emphasis> mean that the server got your
connection request and rejected it. That case will produce a
different message, as shown in <xref
linkend="client-authentication-problems">.) Other error messages
such as <computeroutput>Connection timed out</computeroutput> may
indicate more fundamental problems, like lack of network
connectivity.
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="runtime-config">
<Title>Run-time Configuration</Title>
<indexterm>
<primary>configuration</primary>
<secondary>server</secondary>
</indexterm>
<para>
There are a lot of configuration parameters that affect the behavior
of the database system. Here we describe how to set them and the
following subsections will discuss each in detail.
</para>
<para>
All parameter names are case-insensitive. Every parameter takes a
value of one of the four types: Boolean, integer, floating point,
and string. Boolean values are <literal>ON</literal>,
<literal>OFF</literal>, <literal>TRUE</literal>,
<literal>FALSE</literal>, <literal>YES</literal>,
<literal>NO</literal>, <literal>1</literal>, <literal>0</literal>
(case-insensitive) or any non-ambiguous prefix of these.
</para>
<para>
One way to set these options is to edit the file
<filename>postgresql.conf</filename> in the data directory. (A
default file is installed there.) An example of what this file might
look like is:
<programlisting>
# This is a comment
log_connections = yes
syslog = 2
search_path = '$user, public'
</programlisting>
As you see, options are one per line. The equal sign between name
and value is optional. Whitespace is insignificant and blank lines
are ignored. Hash marks (<literal>#</literal>) introduce comments
anywhere. Parameter values that are not simple identifiers or
numbers should be single-quoted.
</para>
<para>
<indexterm>
<primary>SIGHUP</primary>
</indexterm>
The configuration file is reread whenever the <command>postmaster</command> process receives a
<systemitem>SIGHUP</> signal (which is most easily sent by means of
<literal>pg_ctl reload</>). The <command>postmaster</command> also propagates this
signal to all currently running server processes so that existing
sessions also get the new value. Alternatively, you can send the
signal to a single server process directly.
</para>
<para>
A second way to set these configuration parameters is to give them
as a command line option to the <command>postmaster</command>, such as:
<programlisting>
postmaster -c log_connections=yes -c syslog=2
</programlisting>
Command-line options override any conflicting settings in
<filename>postgresql.conf</filename>.
</para>
<para>
Occasionally it is also useful to give a command line option to
one particular session only. The environment variable
<envar>PGOPTIONS</envar> can be used for this purpose on the
client side:
<programlisting>
env PGOPTIONS='-c geqo=off' psql
</programlisting>
(This works for any <application>libpq</>-based client application, not just
<application>psql</application>.) Note that this won't work for
options that are fixed when the server is started, such as the port
number.
</para>
<para>
Some options can be changed in individual SQL sessions with the
<command>SET</command> command, for example:
<screen>
SET ENABLE_SEQSCAN TO OFF;
</screen>
See the SQL command language reference for details on the syntax.
</para>
<para>
Furthermore, it is possible to assign a set of option settings to
a user or a database. Whenever a session is started, the default
settings for the user and database involved are loaded. The
commands <literal>ALTER DATABASE</literal> and <literal>ALTER
USER</literal>, respectively, are used to configure these
settings. Such per-database settings override anything received
from the <command>postmaster</command> command-line or the
configuration file, and in turn are overridden by per-user
settings.
</para>
<para>
The virtual table <structname>pg_settings</structname> allows
displaying and updating session run-time parameters. It contains one
row for each configuration parameter; the columns are shown in
<xref linkend="runtime-pgsettings-table">. This form allows the
configuration data to be joined with other tables and have a
selection criteria applied.
</para>
<para>
An <command>UPDATE</command> performed on <structname>pg_settings</structname>
is equivalent to executing the <command>SET</command> command on that named
parameter. The change only affects the value used by the current session. If
an <command>UPDATE</command> is issued within a transaction that is later
aborted, the effects of the <command>UPDATE</command> command disappear when
the transaction is rolled back. Once the surrounding transaction is
committed, the effects will persist until the end of the session, unless
overridden by another <command>UPDATE</command> or <command>SET</command>.
</para>
<table id="runtime-pgsettings-table">
<title><literal>pg_settings</> Columns</title>
<tgroup cols=3>
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Name</entry>
<entry>Data Type</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal>name</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>The name of the run-time configuration parameter</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>setting</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>The current value of the run-time configuration parameter</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<sect2 id="runtime-config-optimizer">
<title>Planner and Optimizer Tuning</title>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>CPU_INDEX_TUPLE_COST</varname> (<type>floating point</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Sets the query planner's estimate of the cost of processing
each index tuple during an index scan. This is measured as a
fraction of the cost of a sequential page fetch.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>CPU_OPERATOR_COST</varname> (<type>floating point</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Sets the planner's estimate of the cost of processing each
operator in a <literal>WHERE</> clause. This is measured as a fraction of
the cost of a sequential page fetch.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>CPU_TUPLE_COST</varname> (<type>floating point</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Sets the query planner's estimate of the cost of processing
each tuple during a query. This is measured as a fraction of
the cost of a sequential page fetch.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>DEFAULT_STATISTICS_TARGET</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Sets the default statistics target for table columns that have not
had a column-specific target set via <command>ALTER TABLE SET
STATISTICS</>. Larger values increase the time needed to do
<command>ANALYZE</>, but may improve the quality of the planner's
estimates. The default value is 10.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>EFFECTIVE_CACHE_SIZE</varname> (<type>floating point</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Sets the planner's assumption about the effective size of the
disk cache (that is, the portion of the kernel's disk cache that
will be used for <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> data
files). This is measured in disk pages, which are normally 8 kB
each.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>ENABLE_HASHAGG</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Enables or disables the query planner's use of hashed aggregation
plan types. The default is on. This is used for debugging the query
planner.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>ENABLE_HASHJOIN</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Enables or disables the query planner's use of hash-join plan
types. The default is on. This is used for debugging the
query planner.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<indexterm>
<primary>index scan</primary>
</indexterm>
<term><varname>ENABLE_INDEXSCAN</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Enables or disables the query planner's use of index-scan plan
types. The default is on. This is used to debugging the
query planner.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>ENABLE_MERGEJOIN</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Enables or disables the query planner's use of merge-join plan
types. The default is on. This is used for debugging the
query planner.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>ENABLE_NESTLOOP</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Enables or disables the query planner's use of nested-loop join
plans. It's not possible to suppress nested-loop joins entirely,
but turning this variable off discourages the planner from using
one if there are other methods available. The default is
on. This is used for debugging the query planner.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<indexterm>
<primary>sequential scan</primary>
</indexterm>
<term><varname>ENABLE_SEQSCAN</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Enables or disables the query planner's use of sequential scan
plan types. It's not possible to suppress sequential scans
entirely, but turning this variable off discourages the planner
from using one if there are other methods available. The
default is on. This is used for debugging the query planner.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>ENABLE_SORT</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Enables or disables the query planner's use of explicit sort
steps. It's not possible to suppress explicit sorts entirely,
but turning this variable off discourages the planner from
using one if there are other methods available. The default
is on. This is used for debugging the query planner.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>ENABLE_TIDSCAN</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Enables or disables the query planner's use of <acronym>TID</> scan plan
types. The default is on. This is used for debugging the
query planner.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>FROM_COLLAPSE_LIMIT</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
The planner will merge sub-queries into upper queries if the resulting
FROM list would have no more than this many items. Smaller values
reduce planning time but may yield inferior query plans.
The default is 8. It is usually wise to keep this less than
<literal>GEQO_THRESHOLD</>.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<indexterm>
<primary>genetic query optimization</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>GEQO</primary>
<see>genetic query optimization</see>
</indexterm>
<term><varname>GEQO</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Enables or disables genetic query optimization, which is an
algorithm that attempts to do query planning without exhaustive
searching. This is on by default. See also the various other
<varname>GEQO_</varname> settings.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>GEQO_EFFORT</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<term><varname>GEQO_GENERATIONS</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<term><varname>GEQO_POOL_SIZE</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<term><varname>GEQO_RANDOM_SEED</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<term><varname>GEQO_SELECTION_BIAS</varname> (<type>floating point</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Various tuning parameters for the genetic query optimization
algorithm: The pool size is the number of individuals in one
population. Valid values are between 128 and 1024. If it is set
to 0 (the default) a pool size of 2^(QS+1), where QS is the
number of <literal>FROM</> items in the query, is taken. The effort is used
to calculate a default for generations. Valid values are between
1 and 80, 40 being the default. Generations specifies the number
of iterations in the algorithm. The number must be a positive
integer. If 0 is specified then <literal>Effort *
Log2(PoolSize)</literal> is used. The run time of the algorithm
is roughly proportional to the sum of pool size and generations.
The selection bias is the selective pressure within the
population. Values can be from 1.50 to 2.00; the latter is the
default. The random seed can be set to get reproducible results
from the algorithm. If it is set to -1 then the algorithm
behaves non-deterministically.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>GEQO_THRESHOLD</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Use genetic query optimization to plan queries with at least
this many <literal>FROM</> items involved. (Note that an outer
<literal>JOIN</> construct counts as only one <literal>FROM</>
item.) The default is 11. For simpler queries it is usually best
to use the deterministic, exhaustive planner, but for queries with
many tables the deterministic planner takes too long.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>JOIN_COLLAPSE_LIMIT</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
The planner will flatten explicit inner <literal>JOIN</> constructs
into lists of <literal>FROM</> items whenever a list of no more than
this many items would result. Usually this is set the same as
<literal>FROM_COLLAPSE_LIMIT</>. Setting it to 1 prevents any
flattening of inner <literal>JOIN</>s, allowing explicit
<literal>JOIN</> syntax to be used to control the join order.
Intermediate values might be useful to trade off planning time
against quality of plan.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>RANDOM_PAGE_COST</varname> (<type>floating point</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Sets the query planner's estimate of the cost of a
nonsequentially fetched disk page. This is measured as a
multiple of the cost of a sequential page fetch. A higher
value makes it more likely a sequential scan will be used,
a lower value makes it more likely an index scan will be used.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
<note>
<para>
Unfortunately, there is no well-defined method for determining
ideal values for the family of <quote>cost</quote> variables that
were just described. You are encouraged to experiment and share
your findings.
</para>
</note>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="logging">
<title>Logging and Debugging</title>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>CLIENT_MIN_MESSAGES</varname> (<type>string</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
This controls which message levels are send to the client.
client. Valid values are <literal>DEBUG5</>,
<literal>DEBUG4</>, <literal>DEBUG3</>, <literal>DEBUG2</>,
<literal>DEBUG1</>, <literal>LOG</>, <literal>NOTICE</>,
<literal>WARNING</>, and <literal>ERROR</>. Each level
includes all the levels that follow it. The later the level,
the fewer messages are sent. The default is
<literal>NOTICE</>. Note that <literal>LOG</> has a different
rank here than in <literal>LOG_MIN_MESSAGES</>.
</para>
<para>
Here is a list of the various message types:
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>DEBUG[1-5]</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
Provides information for use by developers.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>INFO</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
Provides information implicitly requested by the user,
e.g., during <command>VACUUM VERBOSE</>.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>NOTICE</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
Provides information that may be helpful to users, e.g.,
truncation of long identifiers and the creation of indexes as part
of primary keys.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>WARNING</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
Provides warnings to the user, e.g., <command>COMMIT</>
outside a transaction block.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>ERROR</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
Reports an error that caused the current transaction to abort.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>LOG</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
Reports information of interest to administrators, e.g.,
checkpoint activity.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>FATAL</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
Reports an error that caused the current session to abort.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>PANIC</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
Reports an error that caused all sessions to abort.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>DEBUG_ASSERTIONS</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Turns on various assertion checks. This is a debugging aid. If
you are experiencing strange problems or crashes you might want
to turn this on, as it might expose programming mistakes. To use
this option, the macro <literal>USE_ASSERT_CHECKING</literal>
must be defined when <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> is
built (accomplished by the <command>configure</command> option
<option>--enable-cassert</option>). Note that
<literal>DEBUG_ASSERTIONS</literal> defaults to on if
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> has been built with
assertions enabled.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>DEBUG_PRINT_PARSE</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<term><varname>DEBUG_PRINT_REWRITTEN</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<term><varname>DEBUG_PRINT_PLAN</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<term><varname>DEBUG_PRETTY_PRINT</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
These options enable various debugging output to be sent to the
client or server log. For each executed query, they print the resulting
parse tree, the query rewriter output, or the execution plan.
<option>DEBUG_PRETTY_PRINT</option> indents these displays to
produce a more readable but much longer output format.
<option>CLIENT_MIN_MESSAGES</option> or <option>LOG_MIN_MESSAGES</option>
must be <literal>DEBUG1</literal> or lower to send output to the client
or server logs.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>EXPLAIN_PRETTY_PRINT</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Determines whether <command>EXPLAIN VERBOSE</> uses the indented
or non-indented format for displaying detailed query-tree dumps.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>LOG_HOSTNAME</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
By default, connection logs only show the IP address of the
connecting host. If you want it to show the host name you can
turn this on, but depending on your host name resolution setup
it might impose a non-negligible performance penalty. This
option can only be set at server start.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>LOG_CONNECTIONS</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
This outputs a line to the server logs detailing each successful
connection. This is off by default, although it is probably very
useful. This option can only be set at server start or in the
<filename>postgresql.conf</filename> configuration file.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>LOG_DURATION</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Causes the duration of every completed statement to be logged.
To use this option, enable <varname>LOG_STATEMENT</> and
<varname>LOG_PID</> so you can link the statement to the
duration using the process ID.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>LOG_MIN_DURATION_STATEMENT</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Sets a minimum statement execution time (in milliseconds)
above which a statement will be logged. All SQL statements
that run longer than the time specified will be logged together
with the duration, in seconds. The default is <literal>0</literal>
(turning this feature off). For example, if you set it
to <literal>250</literal> then all SQL statements that run longer
than 250ms will be logged along with the duration. Enabling this
option can be useful in tracking down unoptimized queries in
your applications.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>LOG_MIN_ERROR_STATEMENT</varname> (<type>string</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Controls whether or not the SQL statement that causes an error
condition will also be recorded in the server log. All SQL
statements that cause an error of the specified level, or a
higher level, are logged. The default is
<literal>PANIC</literal> (effectively turning this feature
off). Valid values are <literal>DEBUG5</literal>,
<literal>DEBUG4</literal>, <literal>DEBUG3</literal>,
<literal>DEBUG2</literal>, <literal>DEBUG1</literal>,
<literal>INFO</literal>, <literal>NOTICE</literal>,
<literal>WARNING</literal>, <literal>ERROR</literal>,
<literal>FATAL</literal>, and <literal>PANIC</literal>. For
example, if you set this to <literal>ERROR</literal> then all
SQL statements causing errors, fatal errors, or panics will be
logged. Enabling this option can be helpful in tracking down
the source of any errors that appear in the server log.
</para>
<para>
It is recommended you enable <varname>LOG_PID</varname> as well
so you can more easily match the error statement with the error
message.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>LOG_MIN_MESSAGES</varname> (<type>string</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
This controls which message levels are written to the server
log. Valid values are <literal>DEBUG5</>, <literal>DEBUG4</>,
<literal>DEBUG3</>, <literal>DEBUG2</>, <literal>DEBUG1</>,
<literal>INFO</>, <literal>NOTICE</>, <literal>WARNING</>,
<literal>ERROR</>, <literal>LOG</>, <literal>FATAL</>, and
<literal>PANIC</>. Each level includes all the levels that
follow it. The later the level, the fewer messages are sent
to the log. The default is <literal>NOTICE</>. Note that
<literal>LOG</> has a different rank here than in
<literal>CLIENT_MIN_MESSAGES</>. Also see that section for an
explanation of the various values.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>LOG_PID</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Prefixes each message in the server log file with the process ID of
the server process. This is useful to sort out which messages
pertain to which connection. The default is off. This parameter
does not affect messages logged via <application>syslog</>, which always contain
the process ID.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>LOG_STATEMENT</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Causes each SQL statement to be logged.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>LOG_TIMESTAMP</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Prefixes each server log message with a time stamp. The default
is off.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>LOG_STATEMENT_STATS</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<term><varname>LOG_PARSER_STATS</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<term><varname>LOG_PLANNER_STATS</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<term><varname>LOG_EXECUTOR_STATS</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
For each query, write performance statistics of the respective
module to the server log. This is a crude profiling
instrument.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>LOG_SOURCE_PORT</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Shows the outgoing port number of the connecting host in the
connection log messages. You could trace back the port number
to find out what user initiated the connection. Other than
that, it's pretty useless and therefore off by default. This
option can only be set at server start.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>STATS_COMMAND_STRING</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Enables the collection of statistics on the currently
executing command of each session, along with the time at
which that command began execution. This option is off by
default. Note that even when enabled, this information is not
visible to all users, only to superusers and the user owning
the session being reported on; so it should not represent a
security risk. This data can be accessed via the
<structname>pg_stat_activity</structname> system view; refer
to <xref linkend="monitoring"> for more information.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>STATS_BLOCK_LEVEL</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<term><varname>STATS_ROW_LEVEL</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
These enable the collection of block-level and row-level statistics
on database activity, respectively. These options are off by
default. This data can be accessed via the
<structname>pg_stat</structname> and
<structname>pg_statio</structname> family of system views;
refer to <xref linkend="monitoring"> for more information.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>STATS_RESET_ON_SERVER_START</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
If on, collected statistics are zeroed out whenever the server
is restarted. If off, statistics are accumulated across server
restarts. The default is on. This option can only be set at
server start.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>STATS_START_COLLECTOR</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Controls whether the server should start the
statistics-collection subprocess. This is on by default, but
may be turned off if you know you have no interest in
collecting statistics. This option can only be set at server
start.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>SYSLOG</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> allows the use of
<systemitem>syslog</systemitem> for logging. If this option is
set to 1, messages go both to <systemitem>syslog</> and the
standard output. A setting of 2 sends output only to
<systemitem>syslog</>. (Some messages will still go to the
standard output/error.) The default is 0, which means
<systemitem>syslog</> is off. This option must be set at server
start.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>SYSLOG_FACILITY</varname> (<type>string</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
This option determines the <application>syslog</application>
<quote>facility</quote> to be used when logging via
<application>syslog</application> is enabled. You may choose
from <literal>LOCAL0</>, <literal>LOCAL1</>,
<literal>LOCAL2</>, <literal>LOCAL3</>, <literal>LOCAL4</>,
<literal>LOCAL5</>, <literal>LOCAL6</>, <literal>LOCAL7</>;
the default is <literal>LOCAL0</>. See also the
documentation of your system's
<application>syslog</application>.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>SYSLOG_IDENT</varname> (<type>string</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
If logging to <application>syslog</> is enabled, this option
determines the program name used to identify
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> messages in
<application>syslog</application> log messages. The default is
<literal>postgres</literal>.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>TRACE_NOTIFY</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Generates a great amount of debugging output for the
<command>LISTEN</command> and <command>NOTIFY</command>
commands.
<option>CLIENT_MIN_MESSAGES</option> or <option>LOG_MIN_MESSAGES</option>
must be <literal>DEBUG1</literal> or lower to send output to the client
or server logs.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="runtime-config-general">
<title>General Operation</title>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>ADD_MISSING_FROM</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
This parameter controls whether a relation referenced in a query but
missing from the FROM clause should be automatically added to
the FROM clause. If enabled (the default), the notice
<literal>Adding missing FROM-clause entry for table "tablename"</literal>
is generated if a relation is automatically added. If not enabled,
an error is raised when an additional extra relation is required.
For SQL standards compliance, this value should be set to
<literal>false</>.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>AUSTRALIAN_TIMEZONES</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<indexterm><primary>Australian time zones</></>
<listitem>
<para>
If set to true, <literal>ACST</literal>,
<literal>CST</literal>, <literal>EST</literal>, and
<literal>SAT</literal> are interpreted as Australian time
zones rather than as North/South American time zones and
Saturday. The default is false.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>AUTHENTICATION_TIMEOUT</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<indexterm><primary>timeout</><secondary>authentication</></indexterm>
<listitem>
<para>
Maximum time to complete client authentication, in seconds. If a
would-be client has not completed the authentication protocol in
this much time, the server breaks the connection. This prevents
hung clients from occupying a connection indefinitely. This
option can only be set at server start or in the
<filename>postgresql.conf</filename> file.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>CLIENT_ENCODING</varname> (<type>string</type>)</term>
<indexterm><primary>character set encoding</></>
<listitem>
<para>
Sets the client-side encoding (character set).
The default is to use the database encoding.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>DATESTYLE</varname> (<type>string</type>)</term>
<indexterm><primary>date style</></>
<listitem>
<para>
Sets the display format for date and time values, as well as
the rules for interpreting ambiguous date input values. See
<xref linkend="datatype-datetime"> for more information. The
default is <literal>ISO, US</>.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>DB_USER_NAMESPACE</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
This allows per-database user names. It is off by default.
</para>
<para>
If this is on, you should create users as <literal>username@dbname</>.
When <literal>username</> is passed by a connecting client,
<literal>@</> and the database name is appended to the user
name and that database-specific user name is looked up by the
server. Note that when you create users with names containing
<literal>@</> within the SQL environment, you will need to
quote the user name.
</para>
<para>
With this option enabled, you can still create ordinary global
users. Simply append <literal>@</> when specifying the user
name in the client. The <literal>@</> will be stripped off
before the user name is looked up by the server.
</para>
<note>
<para>
This feature is intended as a temporary measure until a
complete solution is found. At that time, this option will
be removed.
</para>
</note>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<indexterm>
<primary>deadlock</primary>
<secondary>timeout</secondary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>timeout</primary>
<secondary>deadlock</secondary>
</indexterm>
<term><varname>DEADLOCK_TIMEOUT</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
This is the amount of time, in milliseconds, to wait on a lock
before checking to see if there is a deadlock condition. The
check for deadlock is relatively slow, so the server doesn't run
it every time it waits for a lock. We (optimistically?) assume
that deadlocks are not common in production applications and
just wait on the lock for a while before starting the check for a
deadlock. Increasing this value reduces the amount of time
wasted in needless deadlock checks, but slows down reporting of
real deadlock errors. The default is 1000 (i.e., one second),
which is probably about the smallest value you would want in
practice. On a heavily loaded server you might want to raise it.
Ideally the setting should exceed your typical transaction time,
so as to improve the odds that a lock will be released before
the waiter decides to check for deadlock.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<indexterm>
<primary>transaction isolation level</primary>
</indexterm>
<term><varname>DEFAULT_TRANSACTION_ISOLATION</varname> (<type>string</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Each SQL transaction has an isolation level, which can be either
<quote>read committed</quote> or <quote>serializable</quote>.
This parameter controls the default isolation level of each new
transaction. The default is <quote>read committed</quote>.
</para>
<para>
Consult <xref linkend="mvcc"> and <xref linkend="sql-set-transaction"> for more
information.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<indexterm>
<primary>read-only transaction</primary>
</indexterm>
<term><varname>DEFAULT_TRANSACTION_READ_ONLY</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
A read-only SQL transaction cannot alter non-temporary tables.
This parameter controls the default read-only status of each new
transaction. The default is false (read/write).
</para>
<para>
Consult <xref linkend="sql-set-transaction"> for more information.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>DYNAMIC_LIBRARY_PATH</varname> (<type>string</type>)</term>
<indexterm><primary>dynamic_library_path</></>
<indexterm><primary>dynamic loading</></>
<listitem>
<para>
If a dynamically loadable module needs to be opened and the
specified name does not have a directory component (i.e. the
name does not contain a slash), the system will search this
path for the specified file. (The name that is used is the
name specified in the <command>CREATE FUNCTION</command> or
<command>LOAD</command> command.)
</para>
<para>
The value for <varname>DYNAMIC_LIBRARY_PATH</varname> has to be a colon-separated
list of absolute directory names. If a directory name starts
with the special value <literal>$libdir</literal>, the
compiled-in <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> package
library directory is substituted. This where the modules
provided by the <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>
distribution are installed. (Use <literal>pg_config
--pkglibdir</literal> to print the name of this directory.) For
example:
<programlisting>
dynamic_library_path = '/usr/local/lib/postgresql:/home/my_project/lib:$libdir'
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
The default value for this parameter is
<literal>'$libdir'</literal>. If the value is set to an empty
string, the automatic path search is turned off.
</para>
<para>
This parameter can be changed at run time by superusers, but a
setting done that way will only persist until the end of the
client connection, so this method should be reserved for
development purposes. The recommended way to set this parameter
is in the <filename>postgresql.conf</filename> configuration
file.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<indexterm>
<primary>significant digits</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>display</primary>
<secondary>of float numbers</secondary>
</indexterm>
<term><varname>EXTRA_FLOAT_DIGITS</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
This parameter adjusts the number of digits displayed for
floating-point values, including <type>float4</>, <type>float8</>,
and geometric data types. The parameter value is added to the
standard number of digits (<literal>FLT_DIG</> or <literal>DBL_DIG</>
as appropriate). The value can be set as high as 2, to include
partially-significant digits; this is especially useful for dumping
float data that needs to be restored exactly. Or it can be set
negative to suppress unwanted digits.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>KRB_SERVER_KEYFILE</varname> (<type>string</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Sets the location of the Kerberos server key file. See
<xref linkend="kerberos-auth"> for details.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<indexterm>
<primary>fsync</primary>
</indexterm>
<term><varname>FSYNC</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
If this option is on, the <productname>PostgreSQL</> server
will use the <function>fsync()</> system call in several places
to make sure that updates are physically written to disk. This
insures that a database cluster will recover to a
consistent state after an operating system or hardware crash.
(Crashes of the database server itself are <emphasis>not</>
related to this.)
</para>
<para>
However, this operation does slow down
<productname>PostgreSQL</> because at transaction commit it has
wait for the operating system to flush the write-ahead log.
Without <function>fsync</>, the operating system is allowed to
do its best in buffering, sorting, and delaying writes, which
can considerably increase performance. However, if the system
crashes, the results of the last few committed transactions may
be lost in part or whole. In the worst case, unrecoverable data
corruption may occur.
</para>
<para>
For the above reasons, everyone can decide for himself what to
do with the <varname>fsync</> option. Some administrators
always leave it off, some turn it off only for bulk loads,
where there is a clear restart point if something goes wrong,
and some leave it on just to be on the safe side. The default
is on so that you are on the safe side. If you trust your
operating system, your hardware, and your utility company (or
better your battery backup), you can consider disabling
<varname>fsync</varname>.
</para>
<para>
It should be noted that the performance penalty of having
<varname>fsync</> on is considerably less in
<productname>PostgreSQL</> version 7.1 and later. If you
previously suppressed <function>fsync</> for performance
reasons, you may wish to reconsider your choice.
</para>
<para>
This option can only be set at server start or in the
<filename>postgresql.conf</filename> file.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>LC_MESSAGES</varname> (<type>string</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Sets the language in which messages are displayed. Acceptable
values are system-dependent; see <xref linkend="locale"> for
more information. If this variable is set to the empty string
(which is the default) then the value is inherited from the
execution environment of the server in a system-dependent way.
</para>
<para>
On some systems, this locale category does not exist. Setting
this variable will still work, but there will be no effect.
Also, there is a chance that no translated messages for the
desired language exist. In that case you will continue to see
the English messages.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>LC_MONETARY</varname> (<type>string</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Sets the locale to use for formatting monetary amounts, for
example with the <function>to_char</function> family of
functions. Acceptable values are system-dependent; see <xref
linkend="locale"> for more information. If this variable is
set to the empty string (which is the default) then the value
is inherited from the execution environment of the server in a
system-dependent way.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>LC_NUMERIC</varname> (<type>string</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Sets the locale to use for formatting numbers, for example
with the <function>to_char()</function> family of
functions. Acceptable values are system-dependent; see <xref
linkend="locale"> for more information. If this variable is
set to the empty string (which is the default) then the value
is inherited from the execution environment of the server in a
system-dependent way.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>LC_TIME</varname> (<type>string</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Sets the locale to use for formatting date and time values.
(Currently, this setting does nothing, but it may in the
future.) Acceptable values are system-dependent; see <xref
linkend="locale"> for more information. If this variable is
set to the empty string (which is the default) then the value
is inherited from the execution environment of the server in a
system-dependent way.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>MAX_CONNECTIONS</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Determines the maximum number of concurrent connections to the
database server. The default is 32 (unless altered while
building the server). This parameter can only be set at server
start.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>MAX_EXPR_DEPTH</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Sets the maximum expression nesting depth of the parser. The
default value is high enough for any normal query, but you can
raise it if needed. (But if you raise it too high, you run
the risk of server crashes due to stack overflow.)
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>MAX_FILES_PER_PROCESS</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Sets the maximum number of simultaneously open files allowed to each
server subprocess. The default is 1000. The limit actually used
by the code is the smaller of this setting and the result of
<literal>sysconf(_SC_OPEN_MAX)</literal>. Therefore, on systems
where <function>sysconf</> returns a reasonable limit, you don't
need to worry about this setting. But on some platforms
(notably, most BSD systems), <function>sysconf</> returns a
value that is much larger than the system can really support
when a large number of processes all try to open that many
files. If you find yourself seeing <quote>Too many open files</>
failures, try reducing this setting. This option can only be set
at server start or in the <filename>postgresql.conf</filename>
configuration file; if changed in the configuration file, it
only affects subsequently-started server subprocesses.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>MAX_FSM_PAGES</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Sets the maximum number of disk pages for which free space will
be tracked in the shared free-space map. Six bytes of shared memory
are consumed for each page slot. This setting must be more than
16 * <varname>max_fsm_relations</varname>. The default is 20000.
This option can only be set at server start.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>MAX_FSM_RELATIONS</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Sets the maximum number of relations (tables and indexes) for which
free space will be tracked in the shared free-space map. Roughly
fifty bytes of shared memory are consumed for each slot.
The default is 1000.
This option can only be set at server start.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>MAX_LOCKS_PER_TRANSACTION</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
The shared lock table is sized on the assumption that at most
<varname>max_locks_per_transaction</> *
<varname>max_connections</varname> distinct objects will need to
be locked at any one time. The default, 64, has historically
proven sufficient, but you might need to raise this value if you
have clients that touch many different tables in a single
transaction. This option can only be set at server start.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>PASSWORD_ENCRYPTION</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
When a password is specified in <command>CREATE USER</> or
<command>ALTER USER</> without writing either <literal>ENCRYPTED</> or
<literal>UNENCRYPTED</>, this option determines whether the password is to be
encrypted. The default is on (encrypt the password).
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>PORT</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<indexterm><primary>port</></>
<listitem>
<para>
The TCP port the server listens on; 5432 by default. This
option can only be set at server start.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>PRELOAD_LIBRARIES</varname> (<type>string</type>)</term>
<indexterm><primary>preload_libraries</></>
<listitem>
<para>
This variable specifies one or more shared libraries that are
to be preloaded at server start. An initialization function
can also be optionally specified by adding a colon followed by
the name of the initialization function after the library
name. For example
<literal>'$libdir/mylib:init_mylib'</literal> would cause
<literal>mylib</> to be preloaded and <literal>init_mylib</>
to be executed. If more than one library is to be loaded, they
must be delimited with a comma.
</para>
<para>
If <literal>mylib</> is not found, the server will fail to
start. However, if <literal>init_mylib</> is not found,
<literal>mylib</> will still be preloaded without executing
the initialization function.
</para>
<para>
By preloading a shared library (and initializing it if
applicable), the library startup time is avoided when the
library is first used.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>REGEX_FLAVOR</varname> (<type>string</type>)</term>
<indexterm><primary>regular expressions</></>
<listitem>
<para>
The regular expression <quote>flavor</> can be set to
<literal>advanced</>, <literal>extended</>, or <literal>basic</>.
The usual default is <literal>advanced</>. The <literal>extended</>
setting may be useful for exact backwards compatibility with
pre-7.4 releases of <productname>PostgreSQL</>.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>SEARCH_PATH</varname> (<type>string</type>)</term>
<indexterm><primary>search_path</></>
<indexterm><primary>path</><secondary>for schemas</></>
<listitem>
<para>
This variable specifies the order in which schemas are searched
when an object (table, data type, function, etc.) is referenced by a
simple name with no schema component. When there are objects of
identical names in different schemas, the one found first
in the search path is used. An object that is not in any of the
schemas in the search path can only be referenced by specifying
its containing schema with a qualified (dotted) name.
</para>
<para>
The value for <varname>search_path</varname> has to be a comma-separated
list of schema names. If one of the list items is
the special value <literal>$user</literal>, then the schema
having the name returned by <function>SESSION_USER</> is substituted, if there
is such a schema. (If not, <literal>$user</literal> is ignored.)
</para>
<para>
The system catalog schema, <literal>pg_catalog</>, is always
searched, whether it is mentioned in the path or not. If it is
mentioned in the path then it will be searched in the specified
order. If <literal>pg_catalog</> is not in the path then it will
be searched <emphasis>before</> searching any of the path items.
It should also be noted that the temporary-table schema,
<literal>pg_temp_<replaceable>nnn</></>, is implicitly searched before any of
these.
</para>
<para>
When objects are created without specifying a particular target
schema, they will be placed in the first schema listed
in the search path. An error is reported if the search path is
empty.
</para>
<para>
The default value for this parameter is
<literal>'$user, public'</literal> (where the second part will be
ignored if there is no schema named <literal>public</>).
This supports shared use of a database (where no users
have private schemas, and all share use of <literal>public</>),
private per-user schemas, and combinations of these. Other
effects can be obtained by altering the default search path
setting, either globally or per-user.
</para>
<para>
The current effective value of the search path can be examined
via the SQL function <function>current_schemas()</>. This is not
quite the same as examining the value of
<varname>search_path</varname>, since <function>current_schemas()</>
shows how the requests appearing in <varname>search_path</varname>
were resolved.
</para>
<para>
For more information on schema handling, see <xref linkend="ddl-schemas">.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>SHARED_BUFFERS</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Sets the number of shared memory buffers used by the database
server. The default is 64. Each buffer is typically 8192
bytes. This must be greater than 16, as well as at least twice
the value of <varname>MAX_CONNECTIONS</varname>; however, a
higher value can often improve performance.
Values of a few thousand are recommended
for production installations. This option can only be set at
server start.
</para>
<para>
Increasing this parameter may cause <productname>PostgreSQL</>
to request more <systemitem class="osname">System V</> shared
memory than your operating system's default configuration
allows. See <xref linkend="sysvipc"> for information on how to
adjust these parameters, if necessary.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>SILENT_MODE</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Runs the server silently. If this option is set, the server
will automatically run in background and any controlling terminals
are disassociated. Thus, no messages are written to standard
output or standard error (same effect as <command>postmaster</>'s <option>-S</option>
option). Unless some logging system such as
<application>syslog</> is enabled, using this option is
discouraged since it makes it impossible to see error messages.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>SORT_MEM</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Specifies the amount of memory to be used by internal sort operations and
hash tables before switching to temporary disk files. The value is
specified in kilobytes, and defaults to 1024 kilobytes (1 MB).
Note that for a complex query, several sort or hash operations might be
running in parallel; each one will be allowed to use as much memory
as this value specifies before it starts to put data into temporary
files. Also, several running sessions could be doing
sort operations simultaneously. So the total memory used could be many
times the value of <varname>SORT_MEM</varname>. Sort operations are used
by <literal>ORDER BY</>, merge joins, and <command>CREATE INDEX</>.
Hash tables are used in hash joins, hash-based aggregation, and
hash-based processing of <literal>IN</> subqueries.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>SQL_INHERITANCE</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<indexterm><primary>inheritance</></>
<listitem>
<para>
This controls the inheritance semantics, in particular whether
subtables are included by various commands by default. They were
not included in versions prior to 7.1. If you need the old
behavior you can set this variable to off, but in the long run
you are encouraged to change your applications to use the
<literal>ONLY</literal> key word to exclude subtables. See
<xref linkend="sql"> for more information about inheritance.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<indexterm>
<primary>SSL</primary>
</indexterm>
<term><varname>SSL</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Enables <acronym>SSL</> connections. Please read
<xref linkend="ssl-tcp"> before using this. The default
is off.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>STATEMENT_TIMEOUT</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Aborts any statement that takes over the specified number of
milliseconds. A value of zero turns off the timer.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>SUPERUSER_RESERVED_CONNECTIONS</varname>
(<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Determines the number of <quote>connection slots</quote> that
are reserved for connections by <productname>PostgreSQL</>
superusers. At most <varname>max_connections</> connections can
ever be active simultaneously. Whenever the number of active
concurrent connections is at least <varname>max_connections</> minus
<varname>superuser_reserved_connections</varname>, new connections
will be accepted only for superusers.
</para>
<para>
The default value is 2. The value must be less than the value of
<varname>max_connections</varname>. This parameter can only be
set at server start.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>TCPIP_SOCKET</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
If this is true, then the server will accept TCP/IP connections.
Otherwise only local Unix domain socket connections are
accepted. It is off by default. This option can only be set at
server start.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>TIMEZONE</varname> (<type>string</type>)</term>
<indexterm><primary>time zone</></>
<listitem>
<para>
Sets the time zone for displaying and interpreting time
stamps. The default is to use whatever the system environment
specifies as the time zone. See <xref
linkend="datatype-datetime"> for more information.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>TRANSFORM_NULL_EQUALS</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<indexterm><primary>IS NULL</></>
<listitem>
<para>
When turned on, expressions of the form
<literal><replaceable>expr</> = NULL</literal> (or <literal>NULL
= <replaceable>expr</></literal>) are treated as
<literal><replaceable>expr</> IS NULL</literal>, that is, they
return true if <replaceable>expr</> evaluates to the null value,
and false otherwise. The correct behavior of
<literal><replaceable>expr</> = NULL</literal> is to always
return null (unknown). Therefore this option defaults to off.
</para>
<para>
However, filtered forms in <productname>Microsoft
Access</productname> generate queries that appear to use
<literal><replaceable>expr</> = NULL</literal> to test for
null values, so if you use that interface to access the database you
might want to turn this option on. Since expressions of the
form <literal><replaceable>expr</> = NULL</literal> always
return the null value (using the correct interpretation) they are not
very useful and do not appear often in normal applications, so
this option does little harm in practice. But new users are
frequently confused about the semantics of expressions
involving null values, so this option is not on by default.
</para>
<para>
Note that this option only affects the literal <literal>=</>
operator, not other comparison operators or other expressions
that are computationally equivalent to some expression
involving the equals operator (such as <literal>IN</literal>).
Thus, this option is not a general fix for bad programming.
</para>
<para>
Refer to <xref linkend="functions-comparison"> for related information.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>UNIX_SOCKET_DIRECTORY</varname> (<type>string</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Specifies the directory of the Unix-domain socket on which the
server is to listen for
connections from client applications. The default is normally
<filename>/tmp</filename>, but can be changed at build time.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>UNIX_SOCKET_GROUP</varname> (<type>string</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Sets the group owner of the Unix domain socket. (The owning
user of the socket is always the user that starts the
server.) In combination with the option
<varname>UNIX_SOCKET_PERMISSIONS</varname> this can be used as
an additional access control mechanism for this socket type.
By default this is the empty string, which uses the default
group for the current user. This option can only be set at
server start.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>UNIX_SOCKET_PERMISSIONS</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Sets the access permissions of the Unix domain socket. Unix
domain sockets use the usual Unix file system permission set.
The option value is expected to be an numeric mode
specification in the form accepted by the
<function>chmod</function> and <function>umask</function>
system calls. (To use the customary octal format the number
must start with a <literal>0</literal> (zero).)
</para>
<para>
The default permissions are <literal>0777</literal>, meaning
anyone can connect. Reasonable alternatives are
<literal>0770</literal> (only user and group, see also under
<varname>UNIX_SOCKET_GROUP</varname>) and <literal>0700</literal>
(only user). (Note that actually for a Unix domain socket, only write
permission matters and there is no point in setting or revoking
read or execute permissions.)
</para>
<para>
This access control mechanism is independent of the one
described in <xref linkend="client-authentication">.
</para>
<para>
This option can only be set at server start.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>VACUUM_MEM</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Specifies the maximum amount of memory to be used by
<command>VACUUM</command> to keep track of to-be-reclaimed
tuples. The value is specified in kilobytes, and defaults to
8192 kilobytes. Larger settings may improve the speed of
vacuuming large tables that have many deleted tuples.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>VIRTUAL_HOST</varname> (<type>string</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Specifies the host name or IP address on which the server is
to listen for connections from client applications. The
default is to listening on all configured addresses (including
<systemitem class="systemname">localhost</>).
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>ZERO_DAMAGED_PAGES</varname> (<type>boolean</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Detection of a damaged page header normally causes
<productname>PostgreSQL</> to report an error, aborting the current
transaction. Setting <varname>zero_damaged_pages</> to true causes
the system to instead report a warning, zero out the damaged page,
and continue processing. This behavior <emphasis>will destroy data</>,
namely all the rows on the damaged page. But it allows you to get
past the error and retrieve rows from any undamaged pages that may
be present in the table. So it is useful for recovering data if
corruption has occurred due to hardware or software error. You should
generally not set this true until you have given up hope of recovering
data from the damaged page(s) of a table. The
default setting is off, and it can only be changed by a superuser.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="runtime-config-wal">
<title>WAL</title>
<para>
See also <xref linkend="wal-configuration"> for details on WAL
tuning.
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>CHECKPOINT_SEGMENTS</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Maximum distance between automatic WAL checkpoints, in log file
segments (each segment is normally 16 megabytes).
This option can only be set at server start or in the
<filename>postgresql.conf</filename> file.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>CHECKPOINT_TIMEOUT</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Maximum time between automatic WAL checkpoints, in seconds.
This option can only be set at server start or in the
<filename>postgresql.conf</filename> file.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>CHECKPOINT_WARNING</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Send a message to the server logs if checkpoints caused by the
filling of checkpoint segment files happens more frequently than
this number of seconds. Zero turns off the warning.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>COMMIT_DELAY</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Time delay between writing a commit record to the WAL buffer and
flushing the buffer out to disk, in microseconds. A nonzero
delay allows multiple transactions to be committed with only one
<function>fsync</function> system call, if system load is high
enough additional transactions may become ready to commit within
the given interval. But the delay is just wasted if no other
transactions become ready to commit. Therefore, the delay is
only performed if at least <varname>COMMIT_SIBLINGS</varname> other transactions
are active at the instant that a server process has written its commit
record.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>COMMIT_SIBLINGS</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Minimum number of concurrent open transactions to require before
performing the <varname>COMMIT_DELAY</> delay. A larger value
makes it more probable that at least one other transaction will
become ready to commit during the delay interval.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>WAL_BUFFERS</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Number of disk-page buffers in shared memory for WAL
logging. The default is 4. This option can only be set at
server start.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>WAL_DEBUG</varname> (<type>integer</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
If nonzero, turn on WAL-related debugging output to the server log.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><varname>WAL_SYNC_METHOD</varname> (<type>string</type>)</term>
<listitem>
<para>
Method used for forcing WAL updates out to disk. Possible
values are
<literal>FSYNC</> (call <function>fsync()</> at each commit),
<literal>FDATASYNC</> (call <function>fdatasync()</> at each commit),
<literal>OPEN_SYNC</> (write WAL files with <function>open()</> option <symbol>O_SYNC</>), and
<literal>OPEN_DATASYNC</> (write WAL files with <function>open()</> option <symbol>O_DSYNC</>).
Not all of these choices are available on all platforms.
This option can only be set at server start or in the
<filename>postgresql.conf</filename> file.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="runtime-config-short">
<title>Short Options</title>
<para>
For convenience there are also single letter command-line option switches
available for some parameters. They are described in <xref
linkend="runtime-config-short-table">.
</para>
<table id="runtime-config-short-table">
<title>Short option key</title>
<tgroup cols="2">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Short option</entry>
<entry>Equivalent</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><option>-B <replaceable>x</replaceable></option></entry>
<entry><literal>shared_buffers = <replaceable>x</replaceable></></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><option>-d <replaceable>x</replaceable></option></entry>
<entry><literal>log_min_messages = DEBUG<replaceable>x</replaceable></></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><option>-F</option></entry>
<entry><literal>fsync = off</></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><option>-h <replaceable>x</replaceable></option></entry>
<entry><literal>virtual_host = <replaceable>x</replaceable></></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><option>-i</option></entry>
<entry><literal>tcpip_socket = on</></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><option>-k <replaceable>x</replaceable></option></entry>
<entry><literal>unix_socket_directory = <replaceable>x</replaceable></></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><option>-l</option></entry>
<entry><literal>ssl = on</></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><option>-N <replaceable>x</replaceable></option></entry>
<entry><literal>max_connections = <replaceable>x</replaceable></></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><option>-p <replaceable>x</replaceable></option></entry>
<entry><literal>port = <replaceable>x</replaceable></></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<option>-fi</option>, <option>-fh</option>,
<option>-fm</option>, <option>-fn</option>,
<option>-fs</option>, <option>-ft</option><footnote
id="fn.runtime-config-short">
<para>
For historical reasons, these options must be passed to
the individual server process via the <option>-o</option>
<command>postmaster</command> option, for example,
<screen>
$ <userinput>postmaster -o '-S 1024 -s'</userinput>
</screen>
or via <envar>PGOPTIONS</envar> from the client side, as
explained above.
</para>
</footnote>
</entry>
<entry>
<literal>enable_indexscan=off</>,
<literal>enable_hashjoin=off</>,
<literal>enable_mergejoin=off</>,
<literal>enable_nestloop=off</>,
<literal>enable_seqscan=off</>,
<literal>enable_tidscan=off</>
</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><option>-s</option><footnoteref linkend="fn.runtime-config-short"></entry>
<entry><literal>show_statement_stats = on</></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><option>-S <replaceable>x</replaceable></option><footnoteref linkend="fn.runtime-config-short">
</entry>
<entry><literal>sort_mem = <replaceable>x</replaceable></></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><option>-tpa</option>, <option>-tpl</option>, <option>-te</option><footnoteref linkend="fn.runtime-config-short"></entry>
<entry><literal>log_parser_stats=on</>,
<literal>log_planner_stats=on</>,
<literal>log_executor_stats=on</></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="kernel-resources">
<title>Managing Kernel Resources</title>
<para>
A large <productname>PostgreSQL</> installation can quickly exhaust
various operating system resource limits. (On some systems, the
factory defaults are so low that you don't even need a really
<quote>large</> installation.) If you have encountered this kind of
problem, keep reading.
</para>
<sect2 id="sysvipc">
<title>Shared Memory and Semaphores</title>
<indexterm zone="sysvipc">
<primary>shared memory</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="sysvipc">
<primary>semaphores</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
Shared memory and semaphores are collectively referred to as
<quote><systemitem class="osname">System V</>
<acronym>IPC</></quote> (together with message queues, which are not
relevant for <productname>PostgreSQL</>). Almost all modern
operating systems provide these features, but not all of them have
them turned on or sufficiently sized by default, especially systems
with BSD heritage. (For the <systemitem class="osname">QNX</> and
<systemitem class="osname">BeOS</> ports, <productname>PostgreSQL</>
provides its own replacement implementation of these facilities.)
</para>
<para>
The complete lack of these facilities is usually manifested by an
<errorname>Illegal system call</> error upon server start. In
that case there's nothing left to do but to reconfigure your
kernel. <productname>PostgreSQL</> won't work without them.
</para>
<para>
When <productname>PostgreSQL</> exceeds one of the various hard
<acronym>IPC</> limits, the server will refuse to start and
should leave an instructive error message describing the problem
encountered and what to do about it. (See also <xref
linkend="postmaster-start-failures">.) The relevant kernel
parameters are named consistently across different systems; <xref
linkend="sysvipc-parameters"> gives an overview. The methods to set
them, however, vary. Suggestions for some platforms are given below.
Be warned that it is often necessary to reboot your machine, and
possibly even recompile the kernel, to change these settings.
</para>
<table id="sysvipc-parameters">
<title><systemitem class="osname">System V</> <acronym>IPC</> parameters</>
<tgroup cols="3">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Name</>
<entry>Description</>
<entry>Reasonable values</>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><varname>SHMMAX</></>
<entry>Maximum size of shared memory segment (bytes)</>
<entry>250 kB + 8.2 kB * <varname>shared_buffers</> + 14.2 kB * <varname>max_connections</> up to infinity</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><varname>SHMMIN</></>
<entry>Minimum size of shared memory segment (bytes)</>
<entry>1</>
</row>
<row>
<entry><varname>SHMALL</></>
<entry>Total amount of shared memory available (bytes or pages)</>
<entry>if bytes, same as <varname>SHMMAX</varname>; if pages, <literal>ceil(SHMMAX/PAGE_SIZE)</literal></>
</row>
<row>
<entry><varname>SHMSEG</></>
<entry>Maximum number of shared memory segments per process</>
<entry>only 1 segment is needed, but the default is much higher</>
</row>
<row>
<entry><varname>SHMMNI</></>
<entry>Maximum number of shared memory segments system-wide</>
<entry>like <varname>SHMSEG</> plus room for other applications</>
</row>
<row>
<entry><varname>SEMMNI</></>
<entry>Maximum number of semaphore identifiers (i.e., sets)</>
<entry>at least <literal>ceil(max_connections / 16)</literal></>
</row>
<row>
<entry><varname>SEMMNS</></>
<entry>Maximum number of semaphores system-wide</>
<entry><literal>ceil(max_connections / 16) * 17</literal> plus room for other applications</>
</row>
<row>
<entry><varname>SEMMSL</></>
<entry>Maximum number of semaphores per set</>
<entry>at least 17</>
</row>
<row>
<entry><varname>SEMMAP</></>
<entry>Number of entries in semaphore map</>
<entry>see text</>
</row>
<row>
<entry><varname>SEMVMX</></>
<entry>Maximum value of semaphore</>
<entry>at least 255 (The default is often 32767, don't change unless asked to.)</>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
<indexterm><primary>SHMMAX</primary></indexterm> The most important
shared memory parameter is <varname>SHMMAX</>, the maximum size, in
bytes, of a shared memory segment. If you get an error message from
<function>shmget</> like <errorname>Invalid argument</>, it is
possible that this limit has been exceeded. The size of the required
shared memory segment varies both with the number of requested
buffers (<option>-B</> option) and the number of allowed connections
(<option>-N</> option), although the former is the most significant.
(You can, as a temporary solution, lower these settings to eliminate
the failure.) As a rough approximation, you can estimate the
required segment size by multiplying the number of buffers and the
block size (8 kB by default) plus ample overhead (at least half a
megabyte). Any error message you might get will contain the size of
the failed allocation request.
</para>
<para>
Less likely to cause problems is the minimum size for shared
memory segments (<varname>SHMMIN</>), which should be at most
approximately 256 kB for <productname>PostgreSQL</> (it is
usually just 1). The maximum number of segments system-wide
(<varname>SHMMNI</>) or per-process (<varname>SHMSEG</>) should
not cause a problem unless your system has them set to zero. Some
systems also have a limit on the total amount of shared memory in
the system; see the platform-specific instructions below.
</para>
<para>
<productname>PostgreSQL</> uses one semaphore per allowed connection
(<option>-N</> option), in sets of 16. Each such set will also
contain a 17th semaphore which contains a <quote>magic
number</quote>, to detect collision with semaphore sets used by
other applications. The maximum number of semaphores in the system
is set by <varname>SEMMNS</>, which consequently must be at least
as high as the connection setting plus one extra for each 16
allowed connections (see the formula in <xref
linkend="sysvipc-parameters">). The parameter <varname>SEMMNI</>
determines the limit on the number of semaphore sets that can
exist on the system at one time. Hence this parameter must be at
least <literal>ceil(max_connections / 16)</>. Lowering the number
of allowed connections is a temporary workaround for failures,
which are usually confusingly worded <errorname>No space
left on device</>, from the function <function>semget</>.
</para>
<para>
In some cases it might also be necessary to increase
<varname>SEMMAP</> to be at least on the order of
<varname>SEMMNS</>. This parameter defines the size of the semaphore
resource map, in which each contiguous block of available semaphores
needs an entry. When a semaphore set is freed it is either added to
an existing entry that is adjacent to the freed block or it is
registered under a new map entry. If the map is full, the freed
semaphores get lost (until reboot). Fragmentation of the semaphore
space could over time lead to fewer available semaphores than there
should be.
</para>
<para>
The <varname>SEMMSL</> parameter, which determines how many
semaphores can be in a set, must be at least 17 for
<productname>PostgreSQL</>.
</para>
<para>
Various other settings related to <quote>semaphore undo</>, such as
<varname>SEMMNU</> and <varname>SEMUME</>, are not of concern
for <productname>PostgreSQL</>.
</para>
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term><systemitem class="osname">BSD/OS</></term>
<indexterm><primary>BSD/OS</></>
<listitem>
<formalpara>
<title>Shared Memory</>
<para>
By default, only 4 MB of shared memory is supported. Keep in
mind that shared memory is not pageable; it is locked in RAM.
To increase the amount of shared memory supported by your
system, add the following to your kernel configuration
file. A <varname>SHMALL</> value of 1024 represents 4 MB of
shared memory. The following increases the maximum shared
memory area to 32 MB:
<programlisting>
options "SHMALL=8192"
options "SHMMAX=\(SHMALL*PAGE_SIZE\)"
</programlisting>
For those running 4.1 or later, just make the above changes,
recompile the kernel, and reboot.
</para>
</formalpara>
<para>
For those running earlier releases, use <command>bpatch</> to
find the <varname>sysptsize</> value in the current
kernel. This is computed dynamically at boot time.
<screen>
$ <userinput>bpatch -r sysptsize</>
<computeroutput>0x9 = 9</>
</screen>
Next, add <varname>SYSPTSIZE</> as a hard-coded value in the
kernel configuration file. Increase the value you found using
<command>bpatch</>. Add 1 for every additional 4 MB of
shared memory you desire.
<programlisting>
options "SYSPTSIZE=16"
</programlisting>
<varname>sysptsize</> cannot be changed by <command>sysctl</command>.
</para>
<formalpara>
<title>Semaphores</>
<para>
You may need to increase the number of semaphores. By
default, <productname>PostgreSQL</> allocates 34 semaphores,
which is over half the default system total of 60. Set the
values you want in your kernel configuration file, e.g.:
<programlisting>
options "SEMMNI=40"
options "SEMMNS=240"
</programlisting>
</para>
</formalpara>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><systemitem class="osname">FreeBSD</></term>
<term><systemitem class="osname">NetBSD</></term>
<term><systemitem class="osname">OpenBSD</></term>
<indexterm><primary>FreeBSD</></>
<indexterm><primary>NetBSD</></>
<indexterm><primary>OpenBSD</></>
<listitem>
<para>
The options <varname>SYSVSHM</> and <varname>SYSVSEM</> need
to be enabled when the kernel is compiled. (They are by
default.) The maximum size of shared memory is determined by
the option <varname>SHMMAXPGS</> (in pages). The following
shows an example of how to set the various parameters:
<programlisting>
options SYSVSHM
options SHMMAXPGS=4096
options SHMSEG=256
options SYSVSEM
options SEMMNI=256
options SEMMNS=512
options SEMMNU=256
options SEMMAP=256
</programlisting>
(On <systemitem class="osname">NetBSD</> and <systemitem
class="osname">OpenBSD</> the key word is actually
<literal>option</literal> singular.)
</para>
<para>
You might also want to use the <command>sysctl</> setting to
lock shared memory into RAM and prevent it from being paged out
to swap, e.g. <literal>kern.ipc.shm_use_phys</>.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><systemitem class="osname">HP-UX</></term>
<indexterm><primary>HP-UX</></>
<listitem>
<para>
The default settings tend to suffice for normal installations.
On <productname>HP-UX</> 10, the factory default for
<varname>SEMMNS</> is 128, which might be too low for larger
database sites.
</para>
<para>
<acronym>IPC</> parameters can be set in the <application>System
Administration Manager</> (<acronym>SAM</>) under
<menuchoice><guimenu>Kernel
Configuration</><guimenuitem>Configurable Parameters</></>. Hit
<guibutton>Create A New Kernel</> when you're done.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><systemitem class="osname">Linux</></term>
<indexterm><primary>Linux</></>
<listitem>
<para>
The default shared memory limit (both
<varname>SHMMAX</varname> and <varname>SHMALL</varname>) is 32
MB in 2.2 kernels, but it can be changed in the
<filename>proc</filename> file system (without reboot). For
example, to allow 128 MB:
<screen>
<prompt>$</prompt> <userinput>echo 134217728 >/proc/sys/kernel/shmall</userinput>
<prompt>$</prompt> <userinput>echo 134217728 >/proc/sys/kernel/shmmax</userinput>
</screen>
You could put these commands into a script run at boot-time.
</para>
<para>
Alternatively, you can use <command>sysctl</command>, if
available, to control these parameters. Look for a file
called <filename>/etc/sysctl.conf</filename> and add lines
like the following to it:
<programlisting>
kernel.shmall = 134217728
kernel.shmmax = 134217728
</programlisting>
This file is usually processed at boot time, but
<command>sysctl</command> can also be called
explicitly later.
</para>
<para>
Other parameters are sufficiently sized for any application. If
you want to see for yourself look in
<filename>/usr/src/linux/include/asm-<replaceable>xxx</>/shmpara
m.h</> and <filename>/usr/src/linux/include/linux/sem.h</>.
</para>
<para>
Linux has poor default memory overcommit behavior. Rather than
failing if it can not reserve enough memory, it returns success,
but later fails when the memory can't be mapped and terminates
the application. To prevent unpredictable process termination, use:
<programlisting>
sysctl -w vm.overcommit_memory=3
</programlisting>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><systemitem class="osname">MacOS X</></term>
<indexterm><primary>MacOS X</></>
<listitem>
<para>
Edit the file
<filename>/System/Library/StartupItems/SystemTuning/SystemTuning
</> and change the following values:
<programlisting>
sysctl -w kern.sysv.shmmax
sysctl -w kern.sysv.shmmin
sysctl -w kern.sysv.shmmni
sysctl -w kern.sysv.shmseg
sysctl -w kern.sysv.shmall
</programlisting>
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><systemitem class="osname">SCO OpenServer</></term>
<indexterm><primary>SCO OpenServer</></>
<listitem>
<para>
In the default configuration, only 512 kB of shared memory per
segment is allowed, which is about enough for <option>-B 24 -N
12</>. To increase the setting, first change to the directory
<filename>/etc/conf/cf.d</>. To display the current value of
<varname>SHMMAX</>, run
<programlisting>
./configure -y SHMMAX
</programlisting>
To set a new value for <varname>SHMMAX</>, run
<programlisting>
./configure SHMMAX=<replaceable>value</>
</programlisting>
where <replaceable>value</> is the new value you want to use
(in bytes). After setting <varname>SHMMAX</>, rebuild the kernel:
<programlisting>
./link_unix
</programlisting>
and reboot.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><systemitem class="osname">Solaris</></term>
<indexterm><primary>Solaris</></>
<listitem>
<para>
At least in version 2.6, the default maximum size of a shared
memory segments is too low for <productname>PostgreSQL</>. The
relevant settings can be changed in <filename>/etc/system</>,
for example:
<programlisting>
set shmsys:shminfo_shmmax=0x2000000
set shmsys:shminfo_shmmin=1
set shmsys:shminfo_shmmni=256
set shmsys:shminfo_shmseg=256
set semsys:seminfo_semmap=256
set semsys:seminfo_semmni=512
set semsys:seminfo_semmns=512
set semsys:seminfo_semmsl=32
</programlisting>
You need to reboot for the changes to take effect.
</para>
<para>
See also <ulink
url="http://www.sunworld.com/swol-09-1997/swol-09-insidesolaris.html"></>
for information on shared memory under
<productname>Solaris</>.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><systemitem class="osname">UnixWare</></term>
<indexterm><primary>UnixWare</></>
<listitem>
<para>
On <productname>UnixWare</> 7, the maximum size for shared
memory segments is 512 kB in the default configuration. This
is enough for about <option>-B 24 -N 12</>. To display the
current value of <varname>SHMMAX</>, run
<programlisting>
/etc/conf/bin/idtune -g SHMMAX
</programlisting>
which displays the current, default, minimum, and maximum
values. To set a new value for <varname>SHMMAX</>,
run
<programlisting>
/etc/conf/bin/idtune SHMMAX <replaceable>value</>
</programlisting>
where <replaceable>value</> is the new value you want to use
(in bytes). After setting <varname>SHMMAX</>, rebuild the
kernel:
<programlisting>
/etc/conf/bin/idbuild -B
</programlisting>
and reboot.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Resource Limits</title>
<para>
Unix-like operating systems enforce various kinds of resource limits
that might interfere with the operation of your
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> server. Of particular
importance are limits on the number of processes per user, the
number of open files per process, and the amount of memory available
to each process. Each of these have a <quote>hard</quote> and a
<quote>soft</quote> limit. The soft limit is what actually counts
but it can be changed by the user up to the hard limit. The hard
limit can only be changed by the root user. The system call
<function>setrlimit</function> is responsible for setting these
parameters. The shell's built-in command <command>ulimit</command>
(Bourne shells) or <command>limit</command> (<application>csh</>) is
used to control the resource limits from the command line. On
BSD-derived systems the file <filename>/etc/login.conf</filename>
controls the various resource limits set during login. See the
operating system documentation for details. The relevant
parameters are <varname>maxproc</varname>,
<varname>openfiles</varname>, and <varname>datasize</varname>. For
example:
<programlisting>
default:\
...
:datasize-cur=256M:\
:maxproc-cur=256:\
:openfiles-cur=256:\
...
</programlisting>
(<literal>-cur</literal> is the soft limit. Append
<literal>-max</literal> to set the hard limit.)
</para>
<para>
Kernels can also have system-wide limits on some resources.
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
On <productname>Linux</productname>
<filename>/proc/sys/fs/file-max</filename> determines the
maximum number of open files that the kernel will support. It can
be changed by writing a different number into the file or by
adding an assignment in <filename>/etc/sysctl.conf</filename>.
The maximum limit of files per process is fixed at the time the
kernel is compiled; see
<filename>/usr/src/linux/Documentation/proc.txt</filename> for
more information.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>
The <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> server uses one process
per connection so you should provide for at least as many processes
as allowed connections, in addition to what you need for the rest
of your system. This is usually not a problem but if you run
several servers on one machine things might get tight.
</para>
<para>
The factory default limit on open files is often set to
<quote>socially friendly</quote> values that allow many users to
coexist on a machine without using an inappropriate fraction of
the system resources. If you run many servers on a machine this
is perhaps what you want, but on dedicated servers you may want to
raise this limit.
</para>
<para>
On the other side of the coin, some systems allow individual
processes to open large numbers of files; if more than a few
processes do so then the system-wide limit can easily be exceeded.
If you find this happening, and you do not want to alter the system-wide
limit, you can set <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>'s
<varname>max_files_per_process</varname> configuration parameter to
limit the consumption of open files.
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="postmaster-shutdown">
<title>Shutting Down the Server</title>
<para>
There are several ways to shut down the database server. You control
the type of shutdown by sending different signals to the server
process.
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term><systemitem>SIGTERM</systemitem></term>
<listitem>
<para>
After receiving <systemitem>SIGTERM</systemitem>, the server
disallows new connections, but lets existing sessions end their
work normally. It shuts down only after all of the sessions
terminate normally. This is the <firstterm>Smart
Shutdown</firstterm>.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><systemitem>SIGINT</systemitem></term>
<listitem>
<para>
The server disallows new connections and sends all existing
server processes <systemitem>SIGTERM</systemitem>, which will cause them
to abort their current transactions and exit promptly. It then
waits for the server processes to exit and finally shuts down. This is the
<firstterm>Fast Shutdown</firstterm>.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><systemitem>SIGQUIT</systemitem></term>
<listitem>
<para>
This is the <firstterm>Immediate Shutdown</firstterm>, which
will cause the <command>postmaster</command> process to send a
<systemitem>SIGQUIT</systemitem> to all child processes and exit
immediately (without properly shutting itself down). The child processes
likewise exit immediately upon receiving
<systemitem>SIGQUIT</systemitem>. This will lead to recovery (by
replaying the WAL log) upon next start-up. This is recommended
only in emergencies.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<important>
<para>
It is best not to use <systemitem>SIGKILL</systemitem> to shut down
the server. This will prevent the server from releasing
shared memory and semaphores, which may then have to be done by
manually.
</para>
</important>
<para>
The <acronym>PID</> of the <command>postmaster</command> process can be found using the
<command>ps</command> program, or from the file
<filename>postmaster.pid</filename> in the data directory. So for
example, to do a fast shutdown:
<screen>
$ <userinput>kill -INT `head -1 /usr/local/pgsql/data/postmaster.pid`</userinput>
</screen>
</para>
<para>
The program <command>pg_ctl</command> is a shell script
that provides a more convenient interface for shutting down the
server.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="ssl-tcp">
<title>Secure TCP/IP Connections with SSL</title>
<indexterm zone="ssl-tcp">
<primary>SSL</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
<productname>PostgreSQL</> has native support for using
<acronym>SSL</> connections to encrypt client/server communications
for increased security. This requires that
<productname>OpenSSL</productname> is installed on both client and
server systems and that support in <productname>PostgreSQL</> is
enabled at build time (see <xref linkend="installation">).
</para>
<para>
With <acronym>SSL</> support compiled in, the
<productname>PostgreSQL</> server can be started with
<acronym>SSL</> enabled by setting the parameter
<varname>ssl</varname> to on in <filename>postgresql.conf</>. When
starting in <acronym>SSL</> mode, the server will look for the
files <filename>server.key</> and <filename>server.crt</> in the
data directory, which should contain the server private key
and certificate, respectively. These files must be set up correctly
before an <acronym>SSL</>-enabled server can start. If the private key is
protected with a passphrase, the server will prompt for the
passphrase and will not start until it has been entered.
</para>
<para>
The server will listen for both standard and <acronym>SSL</>
connections on the same TCP port, and will negotiate with any
connecting client on whether to use <acronym>SSL</>. See <xref
linkend="client-authentication"> about how to force the server to
require use of <acronym>SSL</> for certain connections.
</para>
<para>
For details on how to create your server private key and certificate,
refer to the <productname>OpenSSL</> documentation. A simple
self-signed certificate can be used to get started for testing, but a
certificate signed by a certificate authority (<acronym>CA</>) (either one of the global
<acronym>CAs</> or a local one) should be used in production so the
client can verify the server's identity. To create a quick
self-signed certificate, use the following
<productname>OpenSSL</productname> command:
<programlisting>
openssl req -new -text -out server.req
</programlisting>
Fill out the information that <command>openssl</> asks for. Make sure
that you enter the local host name as <quote>Common Name</>; the challenge
password can be left blank. The programm will generate a key that is
passphrase protected; it will not accept a passphrase that is less
than four characters long. To remove the passphrase (as you must if
you want automatic start-up of the server), run the commands
<programlisting>
openssl rsa -in privkey.pem -out server.key
rm privkey.pem
</programlisting>
Enter the old passphrase to unlock the existing key. Now do
<programlisting>
openssl req -x509 -in server.req -text -key server.key -out server.crt
chmod og-rwx server.key
</programlisting>
to turn the certificate into a self-signed certificate and to copy the
key and certificate to where the server will look for them.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="ssh-tunnels">
<title>Secure TCP/IP Connections with <application>SSH</application> Tunnels</title>
<indexterm zone="ssh-tunnels">
<primary>ssh</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
One can use <application>SSH</application> to encrypt the network
connection between clients and a
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> server. Done properly, this
provides an adequately secure network connection.
</para>
<para>
First make sure that an <application>SSH</application> server is
running properly on the same machine as the
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> server and that you can log in using
<command>ssh</command> as some user. Then you can establish a secure
tunnel with a command like this from the client machine:
<programlisting>
ssh -L 3333:foo.com:5432 joe@foo.com
</programlisting>
The first number in the <option>-L</option> argument, 3333, is the
port number of your end of the tunnel; it can be chosen freely. The
second number, 5432, is the remote end of the tunnel: the port
number your server is using. The name or the address in between
the port numbers is the host with the database server you are going
to connect to. In order to connect to the database server using
this tunnel, you connect to port 3333 on the local machine:
<programlisting>
psql -h localhost -p 3333 template1
</programlisting>
To the database server it will then look as though you are really
user <literal>joe@foo.com</literal> and it will use whatever
authentication procedure was set up for this user. In order for the
tunnel setup to succeed you must be allowed to connect via
<command>ssh</command> as <literal>joe@foo.com</literal>, just
as if you had attempted to use <command>ssh</command> to set up a
terminal session.
</para>
<tip>
<para>
Several other applications exist that can provide secure tunnels using
a procedure similar in concept to the one just described.
</para>
</tip>
</sect1>
</Chapter>
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